Classification societies are independent third-party bodies that develop rules and standards for the design, construction, and maintenance of vessels. They conduct surveys to verify compliance with these rules. A Class Certificate is issued to a newly built ship after the satisfactory completion of surveys and sea trials. This certificate attests that the vessel has been constructed according to the society's rules and standards.

The purpose of this certificate is to provide a standardized level of safety and quality. While it doesn't have legal status on its own, it is a crucial prerequisite for a ship to obtain insurance and employment. Without a valid Class Certificate from a reputable classification society, a vessel is essentially uninsurable and cannot trade internationally.

Yes, it is necessary to call a Class surveyor after any repair or alteration to a ship's structure. This is because any changes could compromise the vessel's structural integrity, stability, or watertightness. The surveyor's role is to inspect the work and confirm that the repairs or alterations have been carried out to the satisfaction of the classification society's rules and standards.

For major structural work, a surveyor should be involved throughout all stages of the process, not just at the end. They ensure that the work doesn't violate any rules and that the ship's watertight integrity remains intact. In some cases, major structural changes may even require a re-evaluation and verification of the ship's Load Line markings.

The International Load Line Certificate is issued by the administration or a classification society authorised to do so under the International Convention on Load Lines (1966). This certificate is valid for five years. The primary purpose of the certificate is to ensure that a ship maintains sufficient watertight integrity and stability, thereby preventing overloading and potential capsizing.

Initial and Periodical Surveys

• Initial Survey: Performed before a ship is put into service, it ensures that the hull, superstructure, fittings, and appliances are compliant with the Load Line Convention. It checks the watertightness of all openings on the deck.
• Periodical Surveys: Conducted every year, these surveys verify that the ship's condition is maintained in accordance with the certificate. Key checks include:
  • Hull condition assessment.
  • Inspection of all access openings and cargo hatches for watertightness and proper functioning of their closing devices (cleats, wedges, etc.).
  • Inspection of all machinery space openings, manholes, ventilation openings, and air pipe closing arrangements on the freeboard deck.
  • Verification that the Deck Line, Load Line marks, and draught marks are clearly and correctly marked.

ODP is a relative measure of how much damage a substance can cause to the stratospheric ozone layer, compared with trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11, R-11) which is assigned an ODP of 1.0. A higher ODP means greater ozone destruction. Commonly used refrigerants with high ODP include CFCs (R-11, R-12) with ODP around 1.0 and HCFCs (R-22) with ODP of about 0.055. GWP is a relative measure of how much heat a gas traps in the atmosphere over a given time horizon (usually 100 years) compared with carbon dioxide (CO2) which has a GWP of 1. High-GWP refrigerants include HFCs such as R-134a (GWP ~1430), R-404A (GWP ~3900) and R-410A (GWP ~2088). Ozone-friendly but high-GWP HFCs were introduced to replace CFCs but are themselves potent greenhouse gases, so the industry is now moving to low-GWP natural refrigerants.

• R-134a (HFC) has been the standard marine refrigerant but is being phased down under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol because of its GWP of about 1430.
• R-404A and R-410A (HFC blends) used in some systems.
• Natural refrigerants with near-zero ODP and very low GWP:
• R-717 Ammonia, GWP ~0, used in large industrial/fishery plants.
• R-744 Carbon dioxide (CO2) transcritical systems, GWP = 1.
• R-290 Propane and R-600a Isobutane hydrocarbon refrigerants, very low GWP but flammable, posing safety constraints in machinery spaces.
• R-718 Water, R-728 Nitrogen in special applications.
• Low-GWP HFO/HFO blends such as R-1234yf, R-513A, R-448A are also being introduced as transitional low-GWP substitutes.

In practice onboard, the choice depends on machinery space fire safety, gas detection arrangements and applicable MARPOL Annex VI restrictions which prohibit use of virgin ozone-depleting gases after defined dates.

Normal operation:

• Carry out routine leak checks using an electronic leak detector or a foaming agent at all joints, valves, flanges and service points; log results.
• Avoid unnecessary opening of the system; maintain charge books and keep records of any topping up so that unexplained losses indicate a leak.
• Keep the plant fully liquid-charged and correctly superheated/subcooled to avoid fluttering of expansion valves which can cause avoidable recharge.
• Ensure relief valves, gauge connections and purge valves are properly seated and capped.
• Schedule periodic sniffer checks and maintain the compressor area well ventilated so leakage is noticed promptly.

During maintenance:

• Recover all gas into a dedicated refrigerator reclaim/recovery unit before opening any circuit; never vent gas to atmosphere.
• Use proper service and recovery cylinders correctly labelled and weigh the gas recovered to quantify any loss.
• Keep tools, fittings and spare gaskets ready so the system is open for the minimum time.
• Before breaking any joint, pump the section down and isolate it with closed valves; fit caps on open lines to avoid moisture ingress and loss.
• After overhaul, evacuate with a vacuum pump and pressure test with dry nitrogen before recharging so leaks are found before refrigerant is introduced.
• Encourage the use of calorific/infra-red analysers to monitor for leaks and to arrest loss from safety reliefs.
• Comply with MARPOL Annex VI (Regulation 12) and the ODS/record requirements, maintaining the Refrigerant Log / ozone-depleting substances record showing virgin/recycled gas and any discharge.

The Maritime Labour Convention 2006 consolidates more than 68 earlier ILO instruments into a single "Bill of Rights" for seafarers. Its key principles are:

• Seafarers have the right to a safe and decent workplace that complies with occupational safety and health standards.
• Fair terms of employment: reasonable working hours, rest periods, paid annual leave and a written Seafarers' Employment Agreement (SEA) in a language the seafarer understands.
• No discrimination in respect of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin.
• Freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining through trade unions and CBAs.
• Access to decent accommodation, food and drinking water, medical care ashore and afloat, and welfare facilities.
• Entitlement to repatriation at the shipowner's expense, compensation for loss of the ship, and social security protection.
• Effective complaint procedures both onboard and ashore so grievances can be resolved without victimisation.

The Convention applies the "no less favourable treatment" principle and uses a compliance and enforcement framework based on flag State responsibility backed by port State control inspections and Maritime Labour Certificates/ Declarations of Maritime Labour Compliance.

Under the MLC 2006 (Regulation 1.4 and Guideline 4.3), each Member State must ensure its laws prohibit violence, harassment, bullying and sexual harassment of seafarers. Measures include:

• National legislation making harassment and bullying a breach of seafarers' rights with appropriate penalties.
• Company policies that clearly state zero tolerance toward bullying, harassment and violence; policies should be present in the Safety Management System and seafarer handbooks.
• Requirement that accommodation, recreational and working areas are free from conditions that facilitate harassment, e.g. adequate personal privacy.
• Effective and easily accessible onboard and onshore complaint procedures through which a seafarer can report incidents without fear of retaliation.
• Access to medical and psychosocial support for affected seafarers.
• A prohibition on dismissal or victimisation of a seafarer who in good faith reports harassment.
• Flag State and port State inspection that verifies these protections are documented and practised.

The Code (Standard A4.3) also requires measures to be taken against any harassment and bullying and to ensure group insurance or compensation schemes protect seafarers.

Flag State responsibility:

• Each flag State that ratifies the MLC must implement it through national law, regulations and collective agreements.
• It establishes an effective inspection and certification system: ships of 500 GT or more engaged in international voyages (or 200 GT or more operating between foreign ports) require a Maritime Labour Certificate (MLC) and a Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance (DMLC Part I and Part II).
• The Flag Administration or a Recognised Organisation (RO) authorised by it carries out initial, renewal, intermediate and additional inspections.
• The flag State investigates reported non-compliance, ensures corrective action and can withdraw certificates for failure to comply.
• It must also ensure that national seafarer supply and recruitment services (manning agents) comply with the Convention.

Port State responsibility:

• Port States may inspect foreign ships for MLC compliance under port State control, consistent with international agreements such as the Paris and Tokyo MOUs.
• A more detailed inspection (including checking of certificates, crew rest hours, wages, accommodation, food) is conducted when there are clear grounds to believe the vessel or its crew's conditions are deficient, or on complaint.
• The Port State can require deficiencies to be rectified before departure, detain the ship in cases of serious non-compliance (e.g. unsafe accommodation, unpaid wages, no SEA) and report findings to the flag State and ILO.
• Port States also ensure shore-based welfare, medical and complaint facilities for seafarers.

The combined effect is that even where the flag State is weak, the network of port State controls maintains a safety net upholding the Convention's standards.

• Immediately inform the Chief Engineer (C/E) and Senior Engineer.
• Start the standby generator and bring it online. This secures power in case the main engine needs to be stopped.
• Stop the main engine AFTER informing the bridge. This reduces oxygen supply to the fire.
• Continue operating the boiler water circulating pump. This helps manage boiler temperature.
• Do NOT use soot blowers. Using them will only accelerate the fire.
• Ensure all exhaust valves are closed after the main engine is stopped to prevent further air supply to the fire.
• Cover the turbocharger air filter. This prevents additional air from fueling the fire.
• Start external boundary cooling. This helps to control the fire's spread.
• If fitted, use water dosing to extinguish the fire.

If the soot fire cannot be controlled and escalates to a hydrogen or metal fire:

• Stop the main engine (if not already stopped).
• Stop the boiler water circulating pump.
• Shut all inlet and outlet valves in the water circulating lines.
• Drain water from the pipelines.
• Continue boundary cooling.
• If fitted with a fixed fire extinguishing medium, activate it.
• Monitor the boiler uptake temperature.
• Once the fire is extinguished, carry out thorough water washing.
• Inspect the inside of the boiler uptake to assess the extent of damage.

Section 5.2 of the ISM Code states that "the Company should ensure that the safety and pollution-prevention management system... The Master has the overriding authority and responsibility to make decisions with respect to the safety and pollution-prevention of the ship and to request the Company's assistance as may be necessary." This means:

• The Master's authority overrides normal company instructions where his or her professional judgement is that safety or pollution Prevention demands alternative action.
• It applies in emergencies, heavy weather routing, refusing a sailing, deviating for casualty or medical reasons, discharge of pollution response, etc.
• The Master is made explicitly responsible, not just accountable, and cannot be ordered into an unsafe situation against his judgement.
• Companies must ensure the Master knows the SMS and is free from restraint so that the authority is genuine. This provision removes ambiguity that might otherwise put commercial pressure ahead of safety.

Requirement: Section 6.3 of the ISM Code requires that the Company should provide documented instructions so that every seafarer, especially newly joined personnel, is able to safely operate and maintain the ship and its equipment. SOLAS (Regulation V/14.4 and STCW) reinforces that crew must be familiarised with safety equipment, alarms, survival craft and emergency procedures before the ship sails; this is recorded.

Advantages:

• Reduces human error, which is a major cause of marine casualties.
• Ensures crew can locate and use lifesaving, firefighting, pollution and emergency equipment quickly.
• Brings new crew up to speed on ship-specific procedures and arrangements more quickly.
• Improves response efficiency in emergencies, reducing risk to life and property.
• Satisfies statutory and audit requirements, avoiding deficiencies at port State control and ISM audits.
• Builds confidence and morale among the crew.

Under Section 4 of the ISM Code, the Company is to designate a person ashore, the DPA, to whom the Master can report on safety and pollution-prevention matters. Requirements and functions:

• The DPA is a shore-based person or persons with direct access to the highest level of management of the company.
• The DPA provides a two-way communication link between the ship and the company, monitoring the safety and pollution-prevention performance of each ship.
• The DPA ensures adequacy and coordination of shore-side resources such as technical support, spare parts, rescue, towing and medical assistance for the ships.
• The DPA monitors that the Safety Management System is operating effectively, coordinates the response to incidents and supports the Master in following up corrective action and reporting.
• The DPA is named in the Document of Compliance (DOC) and is usually reachable 24 hours a day.

Section 1.2 of the ISM Code lists the functional requirements every Safety Management System (SMS) must satisfy:

1. A policy for safety and environmental protection (company safety policy).
2. Instructions and procedures to ensure safe ship operation and environmental protection in compliance with relevant international and flag State legislation.
3. Defined levels of authority and responsibility, and lines of communication between ship and shore personnel.
4. Procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities.
5. Procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations.
6. Procedures for internal audits, management reviews and corrective action.
7. Development of plans and instructions for key shipboard operations concerning the safety of the ship and prevention of pollution (critical operations).

These functional requirements are developed into the full SMS, audited against, and verified by the issue of the DOC (company) and SMC (ship).

• Alarm signal for mustering (the general emergency alarm, 7 short blasts and 1 prolonged blast) and how it is used.
• Action to be taken on hearing alarms, and the position to which each person reports.
• Method of lowering survival craft and rescue boats.
• Abandon ship procedure and the assembly/muster stations.
• Rescue tasks for specific persons (e.g. in water, man overboard).
• Order to muster at the lifeboat stations and the duties of each member in the survival craft.
• Assignment of crew to fire and water emergencies (fire parties, damage control, etc.).
• Duties assigned to persons concerning the operation of radio gear, signalling apparatus, essential equipment for survival, and muster of passengers (on passenger ships).
• Communication methods between the bridge and crew/lifeboats.
• The list should show ranks and names of the crew and their emergency stations, and must be posted in conspicuous places (e.g. mess rooms, recreation rooms, near muster stations).

The training manual should be provided in each mess room and recreation room and cover:

• Abandon ship procedures, survival craft and rescue boat operation.
• Donning of lifejackets and immersion suits.
• Launching and recovery of survival craft, including falls and hooks.
• Use of radios, EPIRBs, SARTs and distress signals.
• Inflatable life raft operation including inflating, boarding and packing.
• Survival at sea (cold-water survival, hypothermia, water/food rationing, use of sea anchor/drogue).
• Firefighting basics, use of extinguishers and personal protection.
• Helicopter rescue procedures.
• Use of water to either flood a survival craft or deal with a casualty (on some designs).
• Actions in case of engine spaces or accommodation fire, and in case of collision/grounding, and rendering medical first aid.

• Weekly: inspect all survival craft, rescue boats and launching appliances visually; check the survival craft and rescue boat are ready for use; check engines (start and run ahead and astern) and that lifeboat equipment is complete; check general emergency alarm.
• Monthly: inspect survival craft covering all items in the maintenance schedule, including lifejackets and personal equipment; check visibility of navigation lights and correct state of the emergency light batteries.
• Three-monthly/as required: renew air supply to air receivers, replenish life-raft yearly service items, test EPIRB (monthly test and annual), check hydrostatic release units, test SART.
• Annually: have all life rafts, rescue boats and survival craft and launching appliances serviced by approved service stations; service lifeboat falls with approved materials; metrological test of fall wires (periodic renewal at intervals set by the Administration, e.g. every 5 years for lifeboat wire falls).
• 5-yearly: renew fall wires.
• Hydraulic pressure/load test of davits at intervals set by the Administration.
• Log all maintenance and drills in the record of inspections and maintenance as required by the Administration.

• Every passenger ship must have embarkation ladders and muster stations for passengers to assemble.
• Mustering should be arranged so that passengers can be assembled in the muster stations in a controlled manner with adequate lighting.
• The muster station must be accessible and provide a clear path to survival craft embarkation positions.
• A public address system must inform passengers of the emergency and instruct them to proceed to the muster station.
• Passenger muster stations must be located at or above the bulkhead deck or as approved, with sufficient lighting, and protected from weather as necessary.
• The 2-watch (watchmen) system, registrations and roll call are arranged during mustering.
• On passenger ships the emergency plan shows appropriate assembly stations, and the drills must demonstrate passenger mustering.

• Boat drill shall be carried out weekly if practicable, and at least monthly on every ship. Fire drills shall be carried out at least monthly and within 24 hours of leaving a port if more than 25% of the crew have not participated in a fire/abandon-ship drill on that voyage.
• In ports where a polluting incident occurs or the ship is not at sea, drills should be conducted within 24 hours.
• The general emergency alarm signal should be given and the drill should be practised: mustering crew at their stations, testing of the alarm, launching/inspection of survival craft (at statutory intervals craft are lowered into the water), trial of lifeboat engines, and operation of fire extinguishing systems (e.g. pumping fire main, testing of starting of fire pumps).
• After every drill, the date, time, location, number of participants, any deficiencies found and corrective action are recorded in a log/Certified log book.
• Drills should be realistic, held in a variety of conditions, and the ship's staff assessed, with a debrief to reinforce learning.
• The drill exercises should include donning of immersion suits and lifejackets at intervals.

The handbrake is the manual brake fitted on the winch barrel/gear of the lifeboat arrangement. Typically it takes the form of a lever-operated band brake acting on a drum mounted on the main shaft driving the winch, connected through a worm/wheel gearing. In many installations the brake is a centrifugal brake combined with a lever-actuated band. On the low-speed (wire) lowering, the handbrake lever when released allows the boat to lower; when pulled it applies friction to stop or hold the boat.

Testing: the brake is tested by lowering the lifeboat at the designed speed with the boat fully loaded (or with a test load), ensuring the brake engages smoothly and brings the boat to a halt at a controlled rate (not exceeding about 1 m/s lowering speed for the hand-operated brake, and ensuring it can arrest the load). The brake is also tested during weekly lowering of the boat and at the annual thorough examination by an approved service station, where a load test verifies the brake can hold the fully loaded boat against descent and stop it within the specified travel. Wear of the brake band and correct adjustment of the linkage is inspected.

The centrifugal brake is an automatic friction brake that governs the lowering speed of the lifeboat independent of the operator. It comprises weighted shoes pivoted on a spider mounted on the shaft. As the shaft speed increases during lowering, centrifugal force throws the shoes outward against a fixed drum/brake ring, generating friction that limits the rate of descent. It therefore acts as a speed-regulating device ensuring the boat lowers at a safe, almost uniform speed whatever the load. The hand brake is used mainly for arresting and holding, while the centrifugal brake limits speed.

Testing: the centrifugal brake is tested by carrying out test lowerings with the boat empty and then with the approved test load (or with the boat ballasted to the full load), measuring the lowering speed, which should be approximately uniform and within the range of no more than 1 m/s for an automatic system (0.9-1.1 m/s typical) and no less than a safe rate. The annual service and the 5-yearly thorough examination by an approved station include stripping, cleaning, re-lubricating and re-setting the brake, and performing an operational speed test to confirm the brake holds speed at successive positions.

(i) The roller ratchet (ratchet/ratchet-and-pawl) is a safety device fitted in the fall wire system, generally at the interface between the winch drum and the wire, which permits the lifeboat to be lowered (the wire paying out) but automatically locks to prevent the boat being raised inadvertently or the hook being released unintentionally. It normally consists of a pawl engaging with a ratchet wheel, the pawl riding over the teeth in one direction and locking against the teeth in the other, plus a roller that takes the load so that the pawl is not carrying the full weight during normal lowering. Testing is carried out by lowering the boat a short distance and observing that the pawl engages and holds the drum immediately the wire stops moving, preventing any reverse motion; the test is included in the weekly lowering checks, the annual operational test and the 5-yearly thorough examination.

(ii) Purpose of the ratchet: it is incorporated to prevent the lifeboat from being lowered or hoisted in an uncontrolled manner and, in particular, to prevent the sudden release of the falls or the boat from running away by providing an automatic one-way lock. It also prevents the wire drum from over-revving in the hoisting direction and ensures that, should the operator stop lowering, the load is held securely, contributing to the intrinsic safety of the embarkation/lowering operation. This is crucial because a lifeboat dropping uncontrolled, or being inadvertently raised, endangers personnel.

The mass of the fin stabiliser system is also very small compared to the deadweight, whereas passive tank stabilisers take up approximately 1.5% of the displacement.

Since fin stabilisers are also much more effective than passive tanks, there is less chance of cargo movement/damage, and crews are more likely to work at optimum efficiency.

The MLC 2006 (Regulation 2.1, the "SEA" standard) requires that every seafarer be covered by a written SEA signed by both the seafarer and the shipowner (or the shipowner's representative), together with a copy of any applicable collective bargaining agreement (CBA). The essential elements that must be included are:

• The seafarer's full name, date of birth or age and place of birth.
• The shipowner's name and address.
• The place and date of signing of the agreement.
• The capacity/rank in which the seafarer is employed.
• The amount of wages or the formula used to calculate them, and the agreed currency.
• The amount of paid annual leave or the formula for calculation.
• Any terms for repatriation.
• The reference to any applicable CBA.
• Health and social security protection benefits to be provided by the shipowner, as defined in national law or CBA.
• The entitlement to repatriation, the amount of paid annual leave, notice period for termination, and any permitted grounds for termination.
• The seafarer's rights in case of illness, injury, or death during employment (medical care, compensation).
• The minimum hours of work/rest periods and the manner of computing working time.
• Details of the life insurance/compensation cover.

The SEA must be signed by the seafarer and shipowner; a copy must be available to the seafarer and to the ship, and (on request) to a seafarer's representative. The SEAs and CBAs are carried on board.

How it protects seafarers' rights: The agreement sets out a clear, enforceable contract that establishes wages, leave, working hours, welfare, medical care, repatriation and termination rights, so a seafarer cannot be exploited by vague oral arrangements. It lets the flag State, port State and the seafarer verify conditions, provides the basis for enforcement and dispute resolution, ensures payment of wages and repatriation are contractual obligations of the shipowner, and (with the DMLC) demonstrates compliance during inspections. It effectively prevents unfair termination and provides a document by which complaints can be pursued.

Collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) are agreements negotiated between the shipowner (or employer's association) and a trade union/workers' organisation representing the seafarers. Under the MLC, the shipowner may conclude a CBA with one or more seafarers' organisations representing the seafarers concerned and the standard collective agreement can set wages and working conditions, provided that the CBA covers and implements the minimum standards of the MLC. A CBA often supplements or is referenced in the SEA, setting out wages, overtime, leave, manning, accommodation, food, welfare and safety conditions in line with (but not below) the Convention's requirements.

How CBAs contribute:

• Fair wages: CBAs fix wage scales, overtime rates, allowances and leave pay through negotiation, which establishes a transparent, enforceable rate of pay, helping to ensure that seafarers are paid at least the agreed amounts and promptly.
• Working conditions: CBAs set rest hours, rotation patterns, leave periods, manning and welfare arrangements, ensuring decent standards and providing consistency across ships of a company.
• Dispute resolution: CBAs include grievance and disciplinary procedures, and provide for resolution of disputes through the union and/or arbitration; they also establish channels for the seafarer's representatives to be heard. Where a CBA covers a matter, the shipowner's compliance with it is auditable under the MLC.
• Contribution to the MLC system: because the MLC expressly recognises CBAs as a legitimate way of implementing parts of the Convention (subject to no less favourable treatment), they allow flexibility in implementation while ensuring all seafarers receive at least the Convention minimum, and they can be used as evidence of compliance in flag and port State inspections and in the DMLC.

The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code is a mandatory instrument under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS Chapter VII) for the transport of dangerous goods by sea, giving effect to the recommendations of the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. Its purposes are:

• To protect the ship, crew, passengers and the marine environment by ensuring dangerous goods are carried in a safe manner consistent with their hazards.
• To provide a uniform, internationally agreed code of practice so that cargo is classified, packed, labelled, documented, stowed and segregated consistently worldwide.
• To prevent accidents, explosions, fires, toxic releases and adverse reaction between incompatible goods, and to guide emergency response and casualty handling.
• To instruct shore and shipboard personnel in correct handling, stowage and segregation of dangerous cargo.

Structure and classification:

• The Code classifies dangerous goods into nine classes:
• Class 1: Explosives.
• Class 2: Gases (flammable, non-flammable/non-toxic, toxic).
• Class 3: Flammable liquids.
• Class 4: Flammable solids, substances liable to spontaneous combustion, substances which emit flammable gases in contact with water.
• Class 5: Oxidising substances and organic peroxides.
• Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances.
• Class 7: Radioactive material.
• Class 8: Corrosives.
• Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles (including environmentally hazardous substances, marine pollutants, elevated-temperature substances).
• Each substance is given a UN number, proper shipping name, and is assigned a packing group (I, II or III) according to degree of danger (great danger, medium, minor).
• Each entry has a Dangerous Goods List giving properties, packing instructions, segregation group, stowage, emergency schedule and marine pollutant status.
• The Code gives segregation and stowage requirements (compatibility, separation distances), based on "segregation" terms (away from, separated from, separated by a complete compartment, or separated by an intervening complete compartment), and stowage by "on deck/in accordance with the Code".
• It covers packaging (with performance tests), marking and labelling (hazard labels and marine pollutant mark), placarding, and documentation (Dangerous Goods Manifest, container packing certificates), and the emergency response information (EMS) needed on board.

Packaging: Dangerous goods must be packed in packagings that are of good quality, properly closed, capable of withstanding the stresses of transport (including humid, corrosive and varying temperature conditions) and manufactured and tested to the UN performance standards. Packaging must be compatible with the hazardous properties of the substance and, where relevant, be provided with inner packagings, cushioning and absorbents. Damaged or leaking packagings must be rejected.

Labelling: Each package must bear the proper shipping name and the correct hazard class label (diamond-shaped label) indicating the primary hazard; additional labels for subsidiary hazards (e.g. marine pollutant) and the UN number. Containers must display placards and MARPOL marine-pollutant marks. Marking must be durable and legible.

Documentation: A Dangerous Goods Transport Document/Manifest giving the proper shipping name, UN number, class, packing group, quantity, and the emergency contact; the container/vehicle packing certificate (signed by the packer); and the shipside Dangerous Goods List or Manifest, which is required to be carried and displayed on the ship, plus stowage plan. The Master must be given the required information and the ship's Fire Control Plan/SOPEP amended as necessary; the Master or designated officer signs the declaration of compliance on the manifest.

Responsibilities:

• The shipowner/operator and cargo handling facility must ensure their personnel are properly trained and familiar with the IMDG Code, that goods are accepted only with correct documentation and labels, and are stowed and segregated on board in accordance with the plan.
• The Master is responsible for ensuring the ship carries a current copy of the Code, a proper stowage plan, and that dangerous goods are loaded, stowed, segregated, secured and reported correctly; the Master must be informed of the nature of the cargo and its hazards.
• Crewmembers must follow the operational procedures: correct handling, lashing, securing, ventilation, monitoring (e.g. of temperature or flammable gas), use of the EMS (Emergency Schedules), and must report damage/deficiency; they must wear required personal protective equipment and follow the stowage and segregation rules.
• On tankers and gas carriers the coded cargo-specific requirements apply (MARVS, temperature, etc.). Correct compliance is verified by port State control and carriage restrictions are enforced under SOLAS VII and the Code.

Port State Control works through regional Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) that group the PSC authorities of a region to harmonise and coordinate inspections. The main MOUs are Paris MoU (Europe and North Atlantic), Tokyo MoU (Asia-Pacific), Indian Ocean MoU, Caribbean MoU, Abuja MoU (West and Central Africa), Black Sea MoU, Mediterranean MoU, Riyadh MoU (Gulf), Viña del Mar (Latin America) and the US Coast Guard. Under these:

• Each Administration commits to inspect a defined percentage of foreign ships calling at their ports each year (e.g. the minimum 25% inspection target).
• They share a common inspection procedure, a ship-risk-profiling system (e.g. the Paris MoU's targeting matrix and ship risk profile) and a centralised database (e.g. EQUASIS/THETIS) recording inspections, detentions and deficiencies.
• They exchange information on sub-standard ships; a ship detained in one port is more likely to be inspected in the next.
• They agree standards (often importing the ILO Maritime Labour Convention 2006, ISM, MARPOL, SOLAS, STCW) and publish black/grey/white lists of flag States, targets of high-risk ships and apply proportionate sanctions.
• The EU has also given legal force to regional cooperation through the EC directives on PSC.

(ii) Future of PSC as an effective tool for ship safety.

PSC remains an essential backstop to flag State control, because sub-standard and "flag of convenience" ships that escape their own Administration's oversight are still caught by port State inspectors. Looking ahead:

• It will become more data-driven and risk-based, using big data from LRIT, AIS, and remote/electronic reporting to target inspections at high-risk ships, improving effectiveness without increasing the burden on compliant owners.
• It is being extended to newer risks: cyber security, GHG/energy-efficiency compliance (CII, EEXI), biofouling and ballast water compliance, and seafarer welfare and fatigue (MLC).
• It will rely on "no more favourable treatment" clauses to close regulatory loopholes and on the continuous sharing of inspection data to prevent escape.
• Challenges: staffing and cost constraints among Administrations, harmonising the inspections, and the risk of inspectors over-focusing on documentation rather than genuine operational safety; nevertheless PSC will remain a key compliance and deterrence tool, supplemented by remote and AI-assisted inspection techniques.

A sub-standard vessel is one whose hull, machinery, equipment or operational safety is significantly below the standards required by international conventions (SOLAS, MARPOL, Load Line, STCW, COLREGS, MLC), such that it endangers the safety of life at sea or the environment. It is usually the product of an ineffective flag State, an owner not maintaining the vessel, and/or deficiencies in crew competence, and is detected through PSC inspections and detentions.

Detainable items under SOLAS (examples):

• Non-functioning or inadequate life-saving appliances: missing life rafts, lifeboats, EPIRB, or survival craft not ready for use.
• Fire safety: fire main inoperative, missing/blocked firefighting appliances, smoke/heat detection system defective, emergency generator/general emergency alarm failure.
• Emergency systems: emergency power supply, emergency lighting, and emergency escape routes obstructed.
• Navigation: compass error, auxiliary navigation aids (VDR, AIS, ECDIS) defective, navigational lighting out of service.
• Radio communications: GMDSS equipment (EPIRB, DSC, SART) not operating.
• Structural: unsafe hull or watertight integrity, excessive corrosion, non-compliant watertight doors or cargo securing arrangements.
• Operational/ISM: lack of SOPEP equipment functional, unsafe cargo operations, no valid certificates, or a Safety Management System that is not being implemented (Major non-conformity).
• Examples under other conventions: MARPOL oily water separator defective or bypassed causing pollution risk; STCW - insufficient or non-compliant manning/certificates; Load Line - overloaded or defective load line; and MLC - unpaid wages or unsafe accommodation. Such items, where they constitute a serious risk, justify detention until rectified.

Statutory Certificates and Documents to be carried on board an oil tanker trading in Indian coastal waters, with the reference convention and justification:

1. International Tonnage Certificate (ITC '69) - Convention: International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships 1969. Justification: states gross and net tonnage which define the vessel's legal size used for manning, STCW certification, port dues, and applicability of many regulations and IOPC oil spill liability limits.

1. Certificate of Class (issued by a Recognised Organisation such as IRS) - regarded as evidence of structural/mechanical standards. Justification: ensures the hull and machinery are maintained to classification society rules, underpinning safe operation and insurance.

1. International Load Line Certificate and Load Line Exemption Certificate - Convention: International Convention on Load Lines 1966 (LL 66) with amendments. Justification: verifies freeboard, watertight integrity and correct load line marks so the vessel is not overloaded, maintaining stability and buoyancy margins.

1. Safety Certificates under SOLAS:

• Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate (SC) - SOLAS Ch. II-1 & II-2; verifies structural, subdivision, stability, machinery and electrical safety.
• Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (SE) - SOLAS Ch. II-1, II-2 & III; confirms lifesaving and fire appliance compliance.
• Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate (SR) - SOLAS Ch. IV (GMDSS); verifies radio installations and watchkeeping.
• (Optional) Cargo Ship Safety Certificate if the Administration combines the above.

Justification: these certify that the ship meets the fundamental safety standards for life and property.

1. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPPC) - MARPOL Annex I. Justification: certifies the tanker's OWS, oil filtering equipment, control systems, sludge and cargo tank washing arrangements meet the discharge and equipment standards, preventing operational oil pollution.

1. International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS Certificate) - MARPOL Annex II. Justification: relevant if carrying category X, Y or Z Noxious Liquid Substances.

1. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate (ISPPC) - MARPOL Annex IV. Justification: verifies sewage treatment plant/pulveriser/distinfection and discharge arrangement compliance.

1. International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate (IAPPC) - MARPOL Annex VI. Justification: certifies NOx, SOx, ODS and VOC compliance, engine NOx Technical File and fuel oil quality.

1. International Energy Efficiency Certificate (IEEC) - MARPOL Annex VI (EEDI). Justification: verifies the attained EEDI/EEXI and the SEEMP, supporting GHG reduction.

1. International Ballast Water Management Certificate (BWMC) - BWM Convention. Justification: verifies D-1/D-2 compliance, BWM plan and record book.

1. Anti-fouling System Certificate and Record - AFS Convention. Justification: confirms the hull is free of prohibited organotin (TBT) coatings.

1. International Anti-fouling System Certificate (AFS Certificate) - for ships > 400 GT international.

1. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) approved - MARPOL Annex I/Regulation 26 / OPRC. Justification: sets out response procedures and reporting duties for oil spills.

1. Garbage Management Plan and Garbage Record Book - MARPOL Annex V. Justification: documents waste handling and discharge compliance.

1. Oil Record Book (Part I - machinery spaces, and Part II - cargo/ballast) - MARPOL Annex I. Justification: records all operations involving oil and sludge.

1. Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP) - for Annex II carriage where applicable.

1. Cargo Ship Safety Certificate / Cargo securing manual.

1. ISM certificates - Document of Compliance (DOC) and Safety Management Certificate (SMC). Justification: confirms an approved Safety Management System operating.

1. International Ship Security Certificate (ISSC) - ISPS Code (SOLAS Ch. XI-2). Justification: verifies security plan and security measures, relevant to any SOLAS ship including tankers.

1. International Ship Management records and STCW certification of crew (COC/COP endorsements). Justification: confirms crew competence under STCW.

1. Certificate of registry / Certificate of Sea-worthiness (issued by flag/Indian Register of Shipping / Mercantile Marine Dept as applicable for Indian coasting) - verifies nationality and seaworthiness.

1. Medical certificates, MLC 2006 - Maritime Labour Certificate & DMLC Part I & Part II. Justification: verifies seafarer working/living conditions.

1. Minimum Safe Manning Certificate (MSMC) - SOLAS/flag requirement. Justification: confirms the minimum number and grades of crew.

1. Radio license, personnel license, ship station.

1. Continuous Synopsis Record (CSR) - SOLAS Ch. XI-1.

1. Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) and EEXI/CII documentation & fuel oil statements - MARPOL Annex VI.

1. Plan of cooperation for SAR and other ship-specific manuals (Fire Control Plan, LSA plan, Emergency Towing Booklet for tankers - SOLAS V/15-1, VDR/S-VDR, LRIT data, GMDSS.)

1. Inert Gas System and Crude Oil Washing (COW) Manual with approved ODMCS (Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System) onboard documents for tankers - MARPOL Annex I.

1. International Oil Tanker Chemical Data? (not required if not carrying NLS). Also the "Unified Interpretation" documents and the Ship Structure/hull survey (ESP) records for oil tankers - SOLAS (Enhanced Survey Programme).

1. Bunker delivery notes and fuel oil quality records - MARPOL Annex VI.

Justification summary: Each certificate evidences compliance with the specific international convention aimed at protecting life at sea, preventing pollution (oil, sewage, garbage, air, ballast), ensuring crew welfare, security and safe shipping; their validity and records are verified by flag State and port State control.

On a bulk carrier, cargo hold fire detection is a fixed smoke-sampling (aspirating) detection system installed as required by SOLAS Ch. II-2 and the FSS Code for ships carrying dry cargo and dangerous goods. The arrangement employs a battery of electric smoke detectors located at the bridge control cabinet linked by a network of small-bore sampling pipes (typically PVC/copper) run into each cargo hold, with regulated suction fans (sample aspirators) drawing a continuous stream of air (sample) from the holds through the sampling pipes back to the analyser cabinet.

Principle/functioning:

• A small fan continuously draws air samples from each hold through separate sampling pipes and a manifold/selector that sequentially checks each hold.
• In the cabinet the air sample passes over an ionisation or optical (obscuration/scattering) sensor. Smoke particles within the hold, taken up by the aspirated air stream, cause a change in the light passed/scattered or ionisation current, detected as an alarm condition.
• The control panel identifies which hold is involved, sounds an audible and visual alarm on the bridge and in the engine room/control room, and may activate a remote alarm.
• The system is designed so that detection is graduated: warning thresholds and alarm thresholds; the fan speed and slot/pinhole arrangement ensures balanced sampling over the hold volume.
• On detection of fire, the alarm alerts the duty officer who can immediately raise the fire alarm and coordinate response, e.g. close ventilation, alert the engine room and master, and adopt the correct (dangerous goods) response.

• Environment: cargo holds may be unoccupied, dusty, can contain flammable or self-heating cargo and are large spaces; machinery spaces are normally occupied, oily, hot and contain heavy equipment.
• Detection principle: holds rely on aspirated sampling across a large volume (point detection impractical), whereas machinery spaces use point/line heat and smoke detectors distributed through the space because personnel present and the density of equipment, and where a fire tends to produce localised heat/smoke first.
• Response: cargo hold detectors give early warning of a fire hidden in cargo so the cargo can be dealt with before it becomes catastrophic; machinery space detectors need to respond fast to protect occupied spaces, so heat detectors are often used to avoid false alarms from normal heat/smoke of engines.
• False alarm susceptibility: hot engine room, steam and combustion products call for heat-detection or flame detectors rather than smoke (which would be frequently tripped); holds use smoke sampling tuned for cargo atmospheres.
• Places of detection/alarming and maintenance: machinery space detectors need explosion-proof/increased protection for flammable atmospheres and easier local testing; cargo hold sampling systems are monitored from the bridge and are designed with explosion-proof pump and equipment considering flammables may be carried.

• For the cargo hold smoke sampling system: carry out a functional test by injecting test smoke or artificial smoke generator into a sampling point in one hold and confirming the corresponding alarm is raised at the control panel; check the suction/aspiration flow by a flow meter or by observing the flow in each sampling line; verify the alarm count/zone is correct; test the audible/visual alarms and the sequential scanning of the hold; visually inspect pipes for damage, blockage or contamination; quarterly/annual servicing per the manufacturer's instructions and FSS code.
• For machinery space heat detectors: test each point detector by applying heat (e.g. heat gun) to the sensing element and confirm the panel identifies the correct zone; for smoke detectors, test by discharging a known test aerosol replacing where necessary; check the panel indicates the zone, that the alarm operates, and re-sets; verify continuity/current of each loop, batteries and power source of the panel (normal and emergency supply).
• Records of all tests, dates and any faults and repairs are to be made in the log/Certified log and the system is to be maintained per the approved maintenance schedule recorded in the plan.

Domestic waste: all food waste, paper, glass, metal, plastics, rags and other waste generated in the accommodation and domestic living areas (galleys, messes, cabins). It is garbage generated during the normal operation of the ship and includes plastics from packaging, bottles, cans, and waste from the crew's domestic activities.

Operational waste: all solid waste generated during the normal operation of the ship, excluding domestic, such as cargo-associated waste (dunnage, shoring, pallets, packing materials, cargo residues), deck washings, engine room waste (oily rags (which may become special area considerations), filters, paint), and waste generated in the hold or during cargo handling. MARPOL Annex V covers garbage; the discharge of plastics is absolutely prohibited everywhere, and the discharge of other garbage is restricted by distance from shore and by special-area status.

Every ship of 100 GT and above, or certified to carry 15 or more persons, must carry a Garbage Management Plan approved by the Administration (Regulation 4, Annex V). The plan provides written procedures for collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage, including the use of the equipment (shredders/compactors), and minimisation. It designates the officers responsible for implementation and identifies the disposal methods ashore and at sea. A Garbage Record Book (Part I for fixed and floating platforms, cargo handling; Part II for all other ships) is mandatory for ships of 400 GT and above and ships certified to carry 15 or more persons engaged in voyages to ports under another Party (Regulation 9/10). Each operation involving garbage (discharge overboard, disposal ashore, incineration, accidental loss) is recorded with date, position, category (A-I plastics under the new Annex V), quantity and signature of the officer in charge. Records must be retained for the period set (at least 2 years) and are inspected by port State control; the Master must confirm waste handed ashore to a reception facility and log the amount.

Outside special areas (i.e. in the normal zones) the following apply:

• Food wastes: may be discharged into the sea provided the ship is more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land, and are to be comminuted or ground where the ship is between 3 and 12 miles (a ship may discharge comminuted/generated within 3 miles only if comminuted to pass a 25 mm mesh and > 3 miles on special conditions? No - outside special areas food may be discharged > 12 miles; comminuted food waste between 3 and 12 miles).
• Cargo residues (non-hazardous) not containing harmful substances? Governed by Annex V amendment (1 Jan 2013, revised in 2018) with requirements as to discharge > 12 nautical miles under certain conditions.
• Cleaning agents/washwater containing garbage may be discharged under the same distance rules.
• Plastics and other synthetic materials: discharge is prohibited anywhere at sea. Any discharge of plastic is banned.
• Ashes and other solid garbage: many are required to be retained and discharged ashore or incinerated; the discharge of packing material (except those defined) is restricted.
• All discharge is prohibited within 500 m? Not, distance-based as above; further restriction that discharge of e.g. glass/paper may be allowed > 12 nm if no special area applies but disposal ashore preferred.

Special areas are those defined in MARPOL Annexes (e.g. Mediterranean, Baltic, Black Sea, Red Sea, Gulf area, the Wider Caribbean Region, the North Sea and the Antarctic area, and the Gulf of Aden for Annex I etc. For Annex V, the special areas include the Mediterranean, Baltic, Black Sea, Red Sea, Gulfs area, the North Sea, the Wider Caribbean (including the Gulf of Mexico? the Caribbean) and the Antarctic area).

Within a special area:

• Food wastes: may be discharged only when the ship is more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land (there is a stricter rule - in special areas, food waste discharge is allowed but not within 12 miles of land).
• All other garbage: discharge into the sea is prohibited within special areas. That includes plastics, paper, glass, garbage.
• Cargo residues: discharge is prohibited except for certain substances, and then only with strict conditions (e.g. washing/handling resulting in residues may discharge only > 12 nautical miles under conditions and if no EU/regional stricter measure, and must be material not harmful).
• All plastics are prohibited everywhere including special areas.
• Ships must retain all garbage for discharge to a port reception facility; record in the Garbage Record Book. Ships may only discharge comminuted food waste > 12 miles; otherwise must keep all.
• The Antarctic area: discharge of food wastes may only be over 12 miles from the nearest land and the discharge must be comminuted/ground to pass a 25mm mesh and protected from birds.
• Reception facilities must be provided at all ports in special areas by the Parties.

The Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) is an IMO-mandated measure of a ship's operational carbon efficiency. It indicates how efficiently a ship transports cargo while emitting carbon dioxide (CO₂). The CII is calculated annually using the following formula:

$$Attained\:CII=\frac{Annual\:CO_2\:Emissions\:\left(g\right)}{Capacity\times Distance\:Sailed\:\left(nmi\right)}$$

Based on the attained value, every ship is assigned an annual CII rating from:

• A – Superior performance
• B – Minor superior
• C – Moderate
• D – Minor inferior
• E – Inferior performance

The CII rating provides a standardized method of evaluating a ship's carbon efficiency. Under IMO regulations, the required CII limits become progressively stricter each year until 2030, encouraging ship operators to continuously improve energy efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, lower CO₂ emissions, and minimize the overall carbon footprint of shipping.

Under the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP), the Second Engineer plays a vital role in ensuring compliance with CII requirements by supervising engine room operations and implementing measures that improve fuel efficiency and reduce CO₂ emissions.

The following operational strategies and maintenance practices help improve a ship's CII rating:

• Operate the main engine at the optimum "eco-speed" and appropriate engine load to significantly reduce daily fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions.
• Regularly calibrate and maintain fuel injection equipment, including fuel injectors and fuel pumps, and optimize valve timing to ensure efficient combustion and lower fuel consumption.
• Coordinate with the deck department to carry out periodic hull cleaning and propeller polishing, thereby reducing hull resistance and improving propulsion efficiency.
• Operate the Shaft Generator (PTO) instead of diesel generators whenever possible. Maintain Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) on engine room pumps to reduce electrical power consumption.
• Ensure the Exhaust Gas Economizer (EGE) and jacket water heat recovery systems operate efficiently to maximize waste heat utilization, thereby reducing boiler fuel consumption and the running hours of auxiliary machinery.

(b) Lowering and Raising of Lifeboat with Safety Features

Lowering a Lifeboat

The lowering process relies on gravity. First, the gripes and safety pins are released. The winch's hand brake is lifted, allowing the lifeboat and its cradle to roll down the inclined trackways. The boat is lowered until it reaches the embarkation deck level, where passengers can board. The lowering is then continued, with the weight of the boat transferred to the wire falls, until it is safely in the water. The descent rate is controlled by two main safety features:

1. Centrifugal Brake: This governs the maximum speed of descent to a safe limit, typically around 36 meters per minute. This feature works automatically, ensuring the boat doesn't free-fall.
2. Deadman's Brake (Hand Brake): This is a manual brake that must be actively held in the 'off' position to allow lowering. If the operator loses control or releases the brake lever, it automatically re-engages, stopping the descent. This prevents uncontrolled lowering if the operator becomes incapacitated.

Raising a Lifeboat

To raise the lifeboat, the winch is engaged. A key safety feature during hoisting is a ratchet arrangement that prevents the drum from reversing and dropping the boat back down in case of a power failure. Additionally, an automatic cut-off switch is fitted in each davit arm. This switch senses when the cradle has reached its final stowed position and automatically cuts off the power to prevent over-hoisting and potential damage to the davit structure.

SOLAS Requirements for Hoisting

As per SOLAS 74 (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea), every lifeboat launching appliance must be capable of hoisting the boat, loaded with its full capacity of equipment, at a rate of not less than 0.3 meters per second (0.3 m/s). This requirement ensures that the lifeboat can be recovered efficiently after use or for maintenance.

The IOPP (International Oil Pollution Prevention) Certificate is issued under the provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978, under the authority of the Government of the country by a competent person or by an organization authorized under the provisions of the Convention.

Preparations to be carried out in the engine room are:

• Ensure particulars of the ship are available for the attending surveyor.
• Present equipment used for controlling oil discharge from machinery space bilges and oil fuel tanks, as per Regulation 16(4), to the surveyor as required.
• After the survey, demonstrate that all equipment is in working condition, including all associated safety devices.
• If any seal of the Oily Discharge Recorder (ODR) was changed during the vessel’s running period, it must be:
  • Noted in the seal log book
  • Entered in the Oil Record Book (ORB) Part I
  • Shown to the surveyor.
• Present the means for retention and disposal of oil residues (sludge), including:
  • Bilge water holding tanks
  • Associated fittings
• Means of disposal of residues to be presented may include:
  • Incinerator for burning oil residue
  • Auxiliary boilers capable of burning oil residue
  • Tank for mixing oil residue with fuel oil
  • Any other acceptable means installed on board
• Present the standard discharge connection for survey.
• The ship's Shipboard Oil/MARINE Pollution Emergency Plan (Regulation 37) should be placed before the surveyor for verification.

Preparations to be carried out in the engine room for the Safety Equipment (SEQ) Survey include:

• Inspect all lifeboat stores and equipment; overhaul or renew as necessary.
• Inspect lifeboat engines, verify their operational condition, and check corresponding oil levels.
• Test the emergency lighting system in engine room spaces.
• Verify fire control plans are posted and remain legible.
• Test the fire and smoke detection system throughout engine room compartments.
• Test and try out fire detection system’s pressure points (fire dot p/ps).
• Test and try out emergency fire pump to confirm functionality.
• Check that fire hoses, nozzles, and applicators are in good condition.
• Test and overhaul the fixed fire-fighting system, such as CO₂ or foam systems.
• Overhaul portable and non-portable fire extinguishers.
• Confirm that all remote controls (e.g., quick closing valves, fuel shutoffs) are operational.
• Overhaul closing arrangements for:
  • Ventilators
  • Skylights
  • Doors
  • Funnel spaces
  • Tunnels
• Recharge Breathing Apparatus (BA) sets as required.

(a) Causes of Steering System Failure

Steering gear failures can be broadly classified into hydraulic, mechanical, electrical, and operational failures. The common causes are:

1. Hydraulic Oil Contamination

• Contamination by dirt, metal particles, or moisture causes hydraulic valves to stick, blocks control mechanisms, and results in severe wear of hydraulic pumps and components.

2. Air Entrapment in the Hydraulic System

• Air bubbles in the hydraulic oil cause oil hammering and erratic rudder movement.
• This may lead to pump cavitation, excessive vibration, and poor steering response.

3. Hydraulic Pipe Leakage

• Blown seals, ruptured hoses, or cracked pipelines result in a sudden loss of hydraulic pressure and fluid.
• As a result, the steering rams or actuators lose the power required to move the rudder.

4. Electrical Motor and Starter Failure

• Overheating, short circuits, phase failure, or faulty electrical relays may cause the steering motor to trip or burn out.

5. Control System Malfunctions

• Failure of communication between the bridge telemotor and the steering gear room.
• Malfunction of feedback devices such as potentiometers or encoders, resulting in incorrect rudder position indication.

6. Mechanical Wear and Tear

• Fatigue failure, shearing of the rudder stock, or damage to mechanical linkages such as crossheads and rams due to repeated heavy mechanical loading.

7. Power Supply Failure

• A blackout or failure of the main switchboard may prevent operation of the steering gear or delay the automatic transfer to the emergency power supply.

8. Rudder or Actuator Overload

• Operating at high speed in heavy weather can impose excessive torque on the rudder, overloading relief valves or permanently deforming steering gear components.

(b) Precautions in Design, Operation, and Maintenance

1. Design Precautions

• Redundancy: Provide at least two independent and identical power units for the main steering gear.
• Independent Systems: Arrange the main and auxiliary steering gear so that failure of one system does not render the other inoperative.
• Double-Walled Piping: Use double-walled or shielded high-pressure hydraulic piping to contain leaks and prevent oil spray onto hot machinery.

2. Operational Precautions

• Prompt Changeover: Ensure the crew is well trained in changing between manual, follow-up, and non-follow-up steering modes, and in transferring control from the bridge to the steering gear compartment.
• Routine Testing: As required by SOLAS Chapter V, carry out steering gear tests within 12 hours before departure, including emergency steering drills, and record the results.
• Parameter Monitoring: Continuously monitor hydraulic oil temperature, hydraulic oil level, phase failure alarms, and power supply condition.

3. Maintenance Precautions

• Hydraulic Oil Quality: Regularly sample and test hydraulic oil to remove contaminants and moisture, and replace filters at recommended intervals.
• Air Venting: Periodically bleed the hydraulic system to remove trapped air and maintain smooth steering operation.
• Inspection and Lubrication: Lubricate all moving parts regularly, inspect tie rods, and check hydraulic rams for pitting, scoring, and seal leakage.

(c) Tanker Requirements Introduced After Major Shipping Casualties

Following major tanker disasters such as the Amoco Cadiz (1978) and Exxon Valdez (1989), the IMO and classification societies introduced stricter steering gear and pollution prevention requirements.

1. Dual Independent Steering Power Units

• Tankers above 10,000 GT must be fitted with at least two independent power actuators.
• The steering gear must be capable of moving the rudder:
  • From 35° on one side to 35° on the opposite side, and
  • From 35° on one side to 30° on the opposite side within 28 seconds at maximum service speed.

  2. Emergency Power Supply

  • Tankers must be provided with an independent auxiliary steering gear or an emergency power supply capable of automatically restoring steering within 45 seconds after failure of the main power supply.

  3. Independent Control Systems

  • Main and auxiliary steering gear control systems must be arranged so that steering can be controlled from both:
    • The navigating bridge, and
    • The steering gear compartment.

    4. Double-Hull Construction

    • Following the Oil Pollution Act (OPA) 1990 and amendments to MARPOL, oil tankers are required to have double-hull construction to minimize oil pollution in the event of grounding or collision caused by steering failure.

    5. Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) and Steering Alarms

    • Tankers are required to carry a Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) to record steering commands and rudder responses.
    • SOLAS also mandates alarms for:
      • Low hydraulic oil level.
      • Hydraulic system overload.
      • Power supply or phase failure.

The anniversary date is the day and month shown on the vessel's Certificate of Class, corresponding to the expiry date of the certificate. It serves as the reference date for scheduling the vessel's annual, intermediate, and special (renewal) surveys and for maintaining the validity of the ship's classification.

A Condition of Class (CoC), also referred to by some Classification Societies as a Recommendation, is a mandatory requirement issued by the Classification Society to rectify a defect or deficiency affecting the ship's hull, machinery, or equipment.

The required repairs or corrective actions must be completed within the specified time limit. Failure to clear the Condition of Class by the due date may result in the suspension or withdrawal of the vessel's class.

The window period is the specified time interval during which a periodic survey can be carried out without affecting the validity of the ship's classification.

For an Annual Survey, the survey is normally carried out within three months before or three months after the anniversary date. Completing the survey within this window ensures that the vessel's class remains valid and that the original anniversary date is retained.

Memoranda are informative notes or remarks entered by the Classification Society for the guidance of the Master, ship's staff, owners, or attending surveyors.

They are generally advisory in nature and do not require immediate corrective action. Memoranda may provide information regarding:

• Equipment limitations.
• Accepted structural deviations.
• Barred engine speed ranges.
• Other operational or structural information that should be noted during the vessel's service.

An Additional Note is a remark entered by the Classification Society to record special conditions or administrative information relating to the vessel.

It may include:

• Special classification notations granted to the ship.
• Compliance with voluntary or specific requirements.
• Administrative matters such as outstanding payments or registration-related information.
• Other conditions relevant to the ship's classification status.

A Statutory Recommendation is a requirement issued by the Classification Society while acting on behalf of the Flag State Administration under international conventions such as SOLAS, MARPOL, and other statutory regulations.

It specifies surveys, repairs, or corrective actions that must be completed within a prescribed time limit to maintain the validity of the vessel's statutory certificates. Failure to comply may result in the suspension or invalidation of the relevant statutory certification.

Before releasing the fixed CO₂ fire-extinguishing system, every effort must be made to ensure that the fire cannot be controlled by other means and that all personnel are safe.

1. Raise the Alarm

• Sound the general emergency alarm.
• Inform the Master and the bridge immediately about the fire.

2. Assess the Fire

• Confirm that the fire is serious and cannot be controlled using portable fire extinguishers or other fixed fire-fighting systems.
• Decide that the release of the fixed CO₂ system is necessary.

3. Stop Machinery

• Stop the main engine, if required.
• Stop all auxiliary engines, if it is safe to do so.
• Stop boilers, fuel oil purifiers, fuel pumps, and other machinery to eliminate possible sources of ignition.

4. Shut Off the Fuel Supply

• Operate the quick-closing valves on the fuel oil tanks.
• Stop all fuel transfer pumps and fuel booster pumps to prevent further fuel supply to the fire.

5. Stop Ventilation

• Stop all engine room supply and exhaust fans.
• Close all ventilation dampers, skylights, and funnel dampers to make the machinery space airtight and prevent the escape of CO₂.

6. Close All Openings

• Close all watertight doors, fire doors, engine room access doors, windows, and hatches.
• Ensure that the engine room is completely sealed.

7. Evacuate All Personnel

• Confirm that all personnel have left the engine room.
• Carry out a head count at the designated muster station to ensure no one remains inside.

8. Inform the Crew

• Announce that CO₂ is about to be released.
• Ensure that no person enters the machinery space once evacuation has been completed.

9. Release CO₂

• Operate the CO₂ release cabinet strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
• Release the required quantity of CO₂ into the engine room.

10. Keep the Space Sealed

• After discharge, keep the engine room completely sealed to maintain the CO₂ concentration and prevent re-ignition.
• The space should remain closed for the required soaking period, normally at least 20 minutes or as specified in the ship's procedures (often longer).

Means Provided to Prevent Inadvertent Release of CO₂

To prevent accidental or unauthorized discharge of CO₂, the following safety arrangements are provided:

• The CO₂ release cabinet is kept locked.
• A two-step release arrangement is provided, usually involving the operation of a pilot cylinder followed by the main release valve.
• The operating lever is fitted with a safety pin or locking arrangement.
• A break-glass panel or sealed cabinet must be opened before the system can be operated.
• Operating instructions are clearly displayed near the release cabinet.
• Audible and visual warning alarms operate before CO₂ discharge.
• A time-delay device is provided to allow personnel sufficient time to evacuate the protected space.
• Mechanical interlocks prevent accidental operation of the system.
• The release controls are located outside the protected machinery space.
• The CO₂ system is subjected to regular inspection, testing, and maintenance to ensure its safe and reliable operation.

After CO₂ has been discharged, re-entry into the engine room should only be carried out in a controlled and safe manner.

1. Do Not Enter Immediately
   • Allow sufficient soaking time for the CO₂ to extinguish the fire completely and reduce the possibility of re-ignition.
2. Obtain Permission
   • Re-entry should only be made with the permission of the Master after assessing the overall situation.
3. Ventilate the Space Carefully
   • When it is considered safe, begin controlled ventilation using the exhaust fans in accordance with the ship's emergency procedures.
4. Test the Atmosphere
   • Before entry, test the atmosphere for:
     • Oxygen concentration
     • CO₂ concentration
     • Toxic gases, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), where applicable.
   • Initial Entry
     • The first entry should be made only by a trained fire party wearing:
       • Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), and
       • Full protective clothing.
     • Maintain Communication
       • Maintain continuous communication with personnel outside the engine room.
       • Keep a rescue team on standby throughout the operation.
     • Inspect the Engine Room
       • Carefully check for:
         • Remaining hot spots
         • Re-ignition
         • Structural damage
         • Fuel leaks
         • Electrical hazards
       • Continue Boundary Cooling
         • Continue boundary cooling, if necessary, to prevent the fire from spreading or re-igniting.
       • Restore the Space
         • Once the engine room has been declared safe:
           • Restore normal ventilation completely.
           • Inspect all machinery and electrical equipment before restarting operations.
           • Record the incident in the appropriate logbooks.
           • Arrange for replenishment, inspection, and servicing of the fixed CO₂ fire-extinguishing system before the vessel sails.

The Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance (DMLC) is an essential document for a vessel’s certification under the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC). It ensures compliance with the MLC’s provisions, including welfare measures for seafarers. It is divided into two parts:

1. DMLC Part I

• Prepared by the Competent Authority of the Flag State (e.g., national government or designated administration).
• Specifies national laws, regulations, and measures implementing MLC requirements.
• Covers all 14 areas of the convention, including welfare-related provisions such as:
  • Medical care and occupational health protection
  • Accommodation standards
  • Food and catering requirements
  • Recreational facilities and welfare services in ports
• Acts as an official statement that the Flag State has fulfilled its MLC obligations and provides a legal reference for compliance.

2. DMLC Part II

• Prepared by the shipowner.
• Describes ship-specific measures for complying with the national legislation referenced in Part I.
• Details for each of the 14 MLC areas, including welfare provisions, such as:
  • Policies for food provision and catering arrangements
  • Procedures to maintain clean and safe accommodation
  • Medical care arrangements, including shore-based medical access
  • Provision of recreational facilities and welfare services
• Forms part of the vessel’s compliance system and is subject to auditing and verification.

Together, DMLC Part I and Part II provide a binding framework ensuring welfare provisions under the MLC are not only legal requirements but are actively implemented and verifiable on MLC-certified vessels.

The MLC requires all ships to have a fair and effective on-board grievance procedure. For Indian-flagged vessels, the grievance mechanism follows a three-tier structure:

1. On-Board Procedure

• Seafarer first reports the grievance to immediate superior or Head of Department.
• If unresolved, the matter is taken to the Master.
• The Master investigates and attempts resolution promptly and fairly, as per procedures described in DMLC Part II.

2. Company Procedure (Designated Person Ashore – DPA)

• If still unresolved, the grievance is escalated to the company’s Designated Person Ashore, as per the ISM Code.
• The DPA ensures the complaint is properly investigated and addressed by company management.

3. External Authority (Directorate General of Shipping – DGS)

• If the company fails to resolve the issue, the seafarer can approach the DGS, the competent authority for Indian-flagged ships.
• Complaints can be submitted via the DGS e-governance system or through the nearest Mercantile Marine Department (MMD).
• The DGS investigates, mediates, and enforces compliance.
• If necessary, the DGS can initiate legal action against the shipowner for MLC violations.

This multi-level mechanism ensures seafarers have a clear and accessible pathway for resolving grievances, with escalation options from shipboard level to national authority.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) are light hydrocarbon vapours, mainly methane and heavier hydrocarbons, that evolve from crude oil and petroleum products. Causes and stages:

• At source/vent evolution: crude oil under pressure and temperature contains dissolved light fractions (methane, ethane, propane, butane and heavier volatile fractions). When the tank's vapour space is opened to atmosphere or the vapours are displaced, the flash vapours escape.

• During loading: as the tank fills, the vapour space is displaced and the rich hydrocarbon vapour is forced out through the venting/vapour recovery line unless a vapour recovery or inerting arrangement retains it. The turbulence of incoming crude, splash filling before the discharge pipes are submerged, increases evaporation and aerosol/VOC generation. Boil-off from cargo and wax, e.g. high-RVP cargoes, increases vapour.

• During transportation: dissolved gases (especially methane/ethane) continue to come out of solution as pressure drops or as the cargo is heated, and with a large vapour space, vapour fills the space; any venting to atmosphere, cargo heating, tank heating or tank breathing (thermal expansion and contraction of vapour) releases VOC when vents open or when vapour condenses at high temperature.

• During unloading/ballasting: as the tank empties, the vapour space expands; to avoid collapse, vapour flows out through vents; similarly when ballasting with dirty ballast, displaced VOC escapes. Stripping operations and pump/vent recoveries release vapours.

• Tank cleaning, crude oil washing (COW) and gas freeing also liberate large VOC; the venting of vapours during these stages is a major emission.

• Human health: inhalation of VOC causes dizziness, headaches, nausea and respiratory irritation; exposure to benzene (a VOC) is associated with leukaemia; long-term exposure may damage the central nervous system, liver and kidneys; acute overexposure in confined spaces can cause asphyxiation as vapours displace oxygen and create flammable/toxic atmospheres.
• Marine life: VOC dissolved or floating on the sea surface can harm plankton and the eggs/larvae of marine organisms; hydrocarbons in water are toxic to fish and invertebrates; bio-accumulation may occur in the food chain.
• Air quality: VOCs react with NOx in sunlight to form photochemical smog and ground-level ozone (tropospheric ozone), which is harmful to human respiratory health and vegetation.
• Climate change: methane (a strong VOC and greenhouse gas) has a global warming potential many times (28-80x) that of CO2 over 100/20 years; other volatile HC contribute to radiative forcing, so VOC release from tankers contributes to GHG emissions and to the ships' contribution to climate change.
• Marine ecosystems: oil vapour/oil sheens from VOC sinks can pollute the sea surface, affect birds and otters (oil coating), and degrade the coastal and pelagic environment; VOC emissions also add to the overall atmospheric HC loading in port regions.

• Inert gas system (IGS): by keeping the vapour space inert (below Lower Flammable Limit) the oxygen level is kept low which both prevents explosion and, in conjunction with a vapour space that does not vent to sea, reduces the amount flashed; however the venting of vapour still occurs if tank level changes; IGS does not eliminate VOC but improves safety and reduces air ingress reducing aromatic regeneration.
• Vapour recovery systems (VRS) / vapour emission control systems (VECS) during loading/unloading: recovering the vapour displaced, by condensation, absorption/adsorption and by returning the recovered product; these are highly effective in loading terminals where vapour is collected and returned or processed, reducing emissions at the discharge/loading interface.
• Closed loading/vent lines and shut-off at the fill point, submersed loading, and using the vapour balance line between the ship and terminal (vessel-to-shore vapour return).
• Use of low-vapour-pressure/suppression additives and blending; choosing crude with lower RVP (reduced vapour pressure); minimizing heating and agitating cargo; installing better constructed/sloping vent systems.
• Improving tank vents with flame-trap/routeing the vents, and controlling pressure within the tank by regulating the inert gas pressure and temperature.
• On modern tankers: environmental protection by using terminal VOC recovery units and by the shipboard vacuum/recovery arrangement; and in some ports, shore-side VOC recovery (e.g. in the EU/UK and US) that capture the returning vapour.
• Operational measures: segregating the vapour space, performing tank cleaning and gas freeing when VOC content is low, cargo heating optimisation, better maintenance of vents and seals, and use of vapour return connections.
• Effectiveness: vapour recovery and vapour balance are the most effective, achieving 90-99% capture at terminals; IGS and operational measures are less effective alone but are essential for safety and reduce the quantity emitted; VOC capture is strongest when ship and terminal cooperate and where national/regional rules (e.g. US EPA, EU VOC directives under MARPOL Annex VI Reg 15) mandate vapour emission control at terminals. Overall, a combination of marine terminal vapour recovery and improved tanker operation produces the greatest reduction in VOC.

Foam's effectiveness is directly related to its expansion ratio and surface tension. The expansion ratio is the volumetric ratio of the foam to the water used to create it. A higher expansion ratio means the foam can cover a larger area with a smaller amount of water. Effervescence in this context refers to the rapid expansion of the foam, which is essential for it to quickly and effectively blanket the fire. The foam's surface tension is a critical property because it allows the foam to spread evenly and rapidly across the burning oil surface. A lower surface tension enables the foam to flow and cover a large area efficiently, preventing oxygen from reaching the fuel. The foam works in three primary ways:

1. Smothering: It forms a blanket that separates the fuel (oil) from the oxygen in the air.
2. Cooling: The water content of the foam absorbs heat from the fire, converting to steam and providing a cooling effect.
3. Radiation Shielding: The foam blanket provides a barrier that prevents radiant heat from the flames from reaching and further heating the fuel source.

The choice between low and high expansion foam depends on the type and location of the fire.

Low Expansion Foam

Low expansion foam typically has an expansion ratio of up to 12:1. It is best suited for localized fires where the burning oil is contained within a horizontal surface, such as a save-all or a confined area. Its dense, heavy nature allows it to effectively smother fires on flat surfaces. It is not effective against fires originating higher up in a space, such as from a burst fuel line, as it cannot reach these elevated sources of ignition.

High Expansion Foam

High expansion foam has a much higher expansion ratio, often up to 1000:1. This foam is light and voluminous, making it ideal for filling an entire compartment, such as an engine room or pump room. This capability makes it highly effective against major conflagrations where the fire may not be confined to a horizontal plane. The foam is typically discharged from overhead ducts, filling the space from the top down, which allows it to reach and extinguish fires at all levels, including those originating from elevated fuel lines and hot surfaces.

In the absence of foam appliances, water jets can be used on oil fires, but with caution and a specific technique. The key is to use a fine water spray rather than a solid jet.

• Cooling and Smothering: The fine water droplets cool the burning vapors by absorbing heat and converting to steam. The steam produced also has a smothering effect. This technique is especially important for oils with low flash points, such as crude oil or gasoline.
• Preventing Spluttering: A solid jet of water would be counterproductive, as the large water droplets would sink into the hot oil. The rapid conversion of water to steam would cause the oil to splutter and possibly spread the fire. The fine spray, however, cools the vapor before it can ignite.
• Cooling Hot Surfaces: Water spray can also be used to cool surrounding hot metal surfaces, preventing the re-ignition of flammable vapors.

Crude oil washing (COW) is a method of cleaning cargo tanks in oil tankers using the crude oil itself as the cleaning medium, mandated by MARPOL Annex I (Regulation 35) for crude oil tankers above 20,000 DWT delivered after 1 June 1982 (for the larger new tankers) and required to be installed with an approved COW system. During COW, high-pressure crude oil (typically 1200-1600 kPa) is directed through fixed deck washing machines and the tank-bottom-oriented nozzles to wash the tank walls and bottom, dissolving and dislodging the waxy and viscous residues and sludges so they are recovered as part of the cargo rather than discharged.

Environmental benefits compared to traditional (water-washing) methods:

• Reduces the amount of oily water and sludge generated: because the washing medium is the cargo (oil) which is subsequently pumped out as cargo, very little oily water is left to be handled. Traditional water washing produced large quantities of oily ballast and wash-water that had to be retained, treated in OWS, and often discharged, risking pollution.
• Almost eliminates the discharge of oil (residues) to sea: the recovered residues are sold/offloaded with the crude, so less oil goes into the slop/retention tanks and the Oil Record Book shows minimal discharge.
• Reduces the volume of slops/slop tanks and oily bilge water requiring treatment in OWS, drastically lowering the risk of operational oil pollution and cutting the operability/energy cost of OWS.
• Better quality of retained residues (cargo) enabling recovery of cargo that would otherwise be lost as sludge; thus more cargo is discharged and less "dead" residue remains onboard.
• Reduces corrosion from salt-water ballast/tank washing? - the use of crude rather than water reduces both the need for seawater washing and reduces chloride-induced corrosion of tank steel.
• Complies with MARPOL and allows the ship to leave port without carrying large amounts of water-washing sludge, minimising risk of discharge and supporting "no discharge" operations of oily residues. It is also synergistic with mandatory inerting and segregation.

• Flammable atmosphere/explosion risk: COW is only safe when the tank is inerted (inert gas system operating), because the high-pressure jet atomising crude into fine droplets creates a mist within the flammable range. COW must not be carried out unless the tank is inert (O2 below 8%) and the pressure adequate; armed blanketing must be maintained; falls to atmosphere must be prevented by the inert gas plant and the tank pressure controlled. The COW plan must be approved and the Chief Officer/Second Engineer must ensure inert gas is supplied and the vapour space not allowed to become flammable.
• Personnel safety: no personnel shall be inside the tank being washed without breathing protection/entry procedure; the tank must be gas-freed and safe before entry (enclosed space entry - oxygen, LFL, toxic). Avoid exposure to high-pressure jets which can cause severe burns/injuries; correct PPE (face shields, flame-resistant, gloves, boots).
• Equipment/structural integrity: high-pressure jets must comply with the COW plan; use correct nozzle angles and pressures to avoid tank damage/over-pressurisation; the washing machines and fixed piping must be maintained; ensure the tank slop/discharge lines and pumps are safe; avoid operating washing against a closed/blocked system causing pressure build-up; monitor tank pressure and vapour.
• Spark/static risk: ensure all washing and flow generates no electrostatic discharge; keep the tank bonding/earthing, avoid conditions causing excess charging (e.g. not washing with metal-to-metal? keep the piping bonded); the COW machine and fixed parts are earthed.
• Regulatory requirements (MARPOL Reg 35 and Regulation 13F of Annex I; the COW system and its Operations and Equipment Manual (COW Manual) approved; the COW system is to be tested periodically; only appropriate cargoes may be washed by COW; strict record in Oil Record Book, ensuring adequate vapour space, and calling for the approval of the plan by Administration). The IMO "COW - Operations and Equipment" guidelines (MEPC) require following the manual.
• Environmental regulation: COW is done within the framework of the 1/15,000 and 1/30,000 oil content rules; any discharge of oil residues is prohibited; the washings (cargo) are recovered, and the tank washing via COW is recorded and closely monitored (ODMCS).

SAFE MANNING MANUAL

For a 26,000 GRT Bulk Carrier

1. Purpose

The purpose of this manual is to ensure that the vessel is safely manned in accordance with:

• International Maritime Organization (IMO) Resolution A.1047(27)
• SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 14
• STCW Convention
• Maritime Labour Convention (MLC)
• ISM Code

This manual also takes into account:

• Frequent port calls
• Rest-hour management
• High-risk/piracy areas
• Cargo and emergency operations

2. Ship Particulars

3. Safe Manning Objectives

Safe manning arrangements shall ensure:

1. Safe navigation and watchkeeping
2. Safe cargo handling operations
3. Safe engine-room operation
4. Pollution prevention
5. Compliance with rest-hour regulations
6. Emergency preparedness
7. Security duties during high-risk area transit

4. Minimum Manning Scale

Deck Department

• Master – 1
• Chief Officer – 1
• Second Officer – 1
• Third Officer – 1
• Bosun – 1
• Able Seaman – 3
• Ordinary Seaman – 1
• Deck Cadet – 1

Engine Department

• Chief Engineer – 1
• Second Engineer – 1
• Third Engineer – 1
• Fourth Engineer – 1
• Electro-Technical Officer (ETO) – 1
• Oilers/Motormen – 3
• Engine Cadet – 1

Catering Department

• Chief Cook – 1
• Steward – 1

Total Crew: 20

Additional manpower is maintained due to:

• Cargo loading and discharging operations
• Frequent port calls
• Fatigue prevention
• High-risk area transit

5. Watchkeeping Arrangement

Bridge Watches

The same watch schedule is repeated for the next 12 hours.

• An Able Seaman (AB) lookout shall be posted at all times.

Engine Watches

• UMS operation shall be maintained at sea.
• Duty engineer shall remain on call.
• Additional engine staff shall be available during manoeuvring and cargo operations.

6. Rest Hour Management

As per STCW requirements:

• Minimum 10 hours rest in any 24-hour period
• Minimum 77 hours rest in any 7-day period
• Rest hours may be divided into a maximum of two periods
• One period of rest must be at least 6 continuous hours

Fatigue Control Measures

• Rest hours shall be recorded daily.
• Overtime shall be monitored by the Master.
• Compensatory rest shall be provided after heavy cargo operations.
• Drills shall be planned to avoid excessive fatigue.

7. Frequent Port Call Management

Frequent loading and discharging operations increase crew workload due to:

• Mooring operations
• Cargo watchkeeping
• Ballast operations
• Hatch cover operations
• Documentation work

Control Measures

• Extra deck ratings shall be assigned during mooring operations.
• Cargo watch rotation shall be carried out every 6 hours.
• Additional engine attendance shall be maintained during port stay.
• Non-essential maintenance work shall be postponed during busy operational schedules.

8. High-Risk Area Procedures

During transit through piracy-prone or high-risk areas:

• Additional bridge lookout shall be posted.
• Engine room shall be kept on standby condition.
• Security patrols shall be increased.
• Access control measures shall be strictly maintained.
• Emergency anti-piracy procedures shall be kept ready for immediate use.

9. Emergency Preparedness

The vessel shall carry sufficient crew for effective response to:

• Firefighting
• Lifeboat launching
• Flooding and damage control
• Medical emergencies
• Pollution response

Regular emergency drills shall be conducted without causing excessive disturbance to crew rest hours.

10. Master’s Responsibility

The Master shall:

• Ensure compliance with safe manning requirements
• Monitor crew fatigue levels
• Maintain proper watchkeeping standards
• Report unsafe manning conditions to the company

11. Company Responsibility

The company shall:

• Provide qualified and certified crew
• Ensure proper relief planning
• Prevent excessive crew workload
• Support fatigue management systems

12. Conclusion

Safe manning on a 26,000 GRT bulk carrier is essential for:

• Safe navigation
• Efficient cargo handling
• Emergency response
• Pollution prevention
• Crew welfare

Types of Surveys and Statutory Certificates Carried Onboard

1. Annual Survey

• To conduct a general inspection of items related to specific certificates, ensuring they are maintained and satisfactory for the ship’s intended service.
• Timeline: To be carried out within a window of three months before to three months after each anniversary date.
• Conducted by: A Class Surveyor.
• Scope: General examination of the ship, including inspection of:
  • Hull
  • Equipment
  • Machinery
  • Some tests may be witnessed to confirm compliance with Rule requirements and ensure the vessel remains in satisfactory condition.

  2. Intermediate Survey

  • To verify the ship's compliance with Rule requirements and confirm that it is in a satisfactorily maintained condition through:
    • Visual examinations
    • Measurements
    • Testing (as applicable)
  • Timeline: To be carried out within three months before the second anniversary to three months after the third anniversary date.
  • Scope: Includes detailed examinations and checks of the structure and systems.
  • For older vessels or specific ship types, this may include thickness measurements as per Rules and at the discretion of the surveyor.

  3. Renewal (Class Renewal / Special) Survey

  • A major survey to confirm full compliance with Rule requirements through:
    • Visual examination
    • Measurements
    • Testing of hull, equipment, machinery, and systems
  • Frequency: Every 5 years.
  • Extensions of up to 3 months may be granted in exceptional circumstances, without affecting the original due date of the next renewal survey.
  • Scope: Includes:
    • Extensive hull examination with thickness measurements
    • Witnessing tests as deemed necessary
    • Aims to detect structural deterioration such as:
    • Substantial corrosion
    • Fractures
    • Deformation
    • Other forms of damage
  • Notes: The renewal survey may begin during the 4th annual survey and be completed by the 5th anniversary date.

  4. Damage Survey

  • Conducted when the vessel sustains damage that could affect its class status.
  • Scope:
    • Assess the extent of damage
    • Recommend repairs
    • Estimate costs to restore the ship to pre-damage condition
  • Commissioned by: Typically insurance companies as part of a claim investigation to determine the probable cause and extent of damage.
  • Type: Non-periodic survey

  5. Repair Survey

  • Conducted after damage, defect, or breakdown. Ensures that repairs to the hull, equipment, or machinery comply with Class Rules.
  • Conducted by: A Class Surveyor, who verifies the vessel’s restored compliance.
  • Note:
    • If repairs are performed at locations without a surveyor, the vessel must be surveyed at the earliest opportunity.
    • Repairs requiring follow-up inspections are documented under a recommendation or condition of class.

    Part 2: Statutory Certificates Carried Onboard

    The certificates listed below are typically issued by the Flag State Administration or a Recognized Organization (RO) acting on its behalf. The STCW certificates for personnel are issued by the Flag State Administration.

    I. Certificates under SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea), 1974, as amended.

    No.	Certificate	Validity	Reference/Convention Regulation
    1	Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg I/12; 1988 Protocol
    2	Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg I/12; 1988 Protocol
    3	Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg I/12 (GMDSS); 1988 Protocol
    4	Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Composite)	5 years	1988 SOLAS Protocol Reg I/12
    5	Exemption Certificate	-	SOLAS 1974 Reg I/12; 1988 Protocol
    6	Minimum Safe Manning Document	-	SOLAS 1974 Reg V/14.2
    7	Safety Management Certificate (SMC)	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg IX/4; ISM Code Element 13.7
    8	Document of Compliance (DOC)	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg IX/4; ISM Code Element 13.2
    9	International Ship Security Certificate (ISSC)	5 years	SOLAS 1974 Reg XI-2/9.1.1; ISPS Code Part A Sec 19.2

    II. Certificates under MARPOL 73/78 (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships)

    No.	Certificate/Document	Validity	Reference/Convention Annex & Regulation
    1	International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP)	5 years	MARPOL Annex I Reg 7
    2	Statement of Compliance (Oil Record Book)	5 years	MARPOL Annex I Reg 20 & 21
    3	International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate	5 years	MARPOL Annex IV Reg 5; MEPC/Circ.408
    4	Garbage Management Plan	-	MARPOL Annex V Reg 9
    5	Garbage Record Book	-	MARPOL Annex V Reg 9
    6	International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate	-	MARPOL Annex VI Reg 6
    7	Engine International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate (EIAPP)	-	NOx Tech Code Reg 2.3
    8	International Energy Efficiency Certificate (IEEC)	-	MARPOL Annex VI Reg 9 (W.E.F. 01-01-2013)

    III. Certificates under International Load Line Convention (LL), 1966

    No.	Certificate	Validity	Reference/Convention Article
    1	International Load Line Certificate	5 years	LL Convention Art 16; 1988 Protocol Art 18
    2	International Load Line Exemption Certificate	5 years	LL Convention Art 16

    IV. Certificate under International Tonnage Convention, 1969

    No.	Certificate	Validity	Reference/Convention Article
    1	International Tonnage Certificate (1969)	5 years	Tonnage Convention Art 7

    V. Certificates/Documents under AFS (Anti-Fouling System) Convention

    No.	Certificate/Document	Validity	Reference/Convention Annex & Regulation
    1	International Anti-Fouling System Certificate	5 years	AFS Convention Annex 4, Reg 2(1)
    2	Declaration on Anti-Fouling System	5 years	AFS Convention Annex 4, Reg 5(1)

    VI. Certificates/Documents under STCW (Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping)

    No.	Document	Validity	Reference/Convention Article & Regulation
    1	Certificates for Masters, Officers, or Ratings	5 years	STCW 1978 Art VI Reg I/2; STCW Code Sec A-I/2
    2	Records of Hours of Rest	-	STCW Code Sec A-VIII/1

    VII. Certificate under UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)

    No.	Certificate	Reference/Convention Article
    1	Certificate of Registry	UNCLOS Article 91

    VIII. Certificates under Liability Conventions (e.g., CLC - Civil Liability Convention)

    No.	Certificate	Reference/Convention Article
    1	Certificate of Insurance (Civil Liability)	Liability Convention Article VII

    IX. Certificates under ILO (International Labour Organization) Conventions

    No.	Certificate	Reference/Convention
    1	Certificate of Compliance (Crew Accommodation)	ILO Convention
    2	Load Test Certificate (Occupational Safety in Dock Work)	ILO Convention

(a) Conditions of Assignment

Conditions of Assignment are the requirements laid down by the Load Line Convention that a ship must comply with throughout its entire service life in order to retain its assigned load line and freeboard.

These conditions mainly relate to:

• Watertight integrity below the freeboard deck
• Weathertight integrity above the freeboard deck

Compliance with the Conditions of Assignment is mandatory, as only by meeting these requirements can a ship safely load up to its assigned load line.

Audit: An audit is a systematic and independent examination of the management system, processes, and records to determine whether they comply with specific requirements (e.g., ISM Code or ISO 9001 standards). It scrutinizes objective evidence to determine the suitability, conformity, and effectiveness of an organization's quality or Safety Management System (SMS). Audits primarily focus on assessing the effectiveness of the SMS and verifying compliance with established procedures.

Survey: A survey is an inspection or examination of the ship, its equipment, and its condition to ensure compliance with safety standards, regulations, and classification requirements. The purpose of a survey is to verify that the ship meets a minimum technical standard complying with current regulations and that daily work is characterized by safe work and a safety culture. Surveys are conducted by classification societies or Recognized Organizations (ROs) to verify that vessels are seaworthy and meet regulatory requirements for safety, pollution prevention, and operational performance.

(i) When there is evidence of a major non-conformity (NC):

• The R.O. will suspend the Safety Management Certificate (SMC) and notify the Flag Administration.
• The company must submit a corrective action (C.A.) plan within a specified period, typically within 3 days.
• A follow-up verification audit will be conducted to assess the effectiveness of the corrective action before reinstating the SMC.

(ii) When non-conformities are found:

• For minor NCs, the R.O. issues a Non-Conformity Report (NCR) and requires implementation of corrective actions within a defined period (usually 90 days).
• For major NCs, the SMC may be suspended until corrective actions are verified.
• A follow-up audit is scheduled to verify compliance and the successful implementation of corrective actions.

(iii) When an extension of the SMC is requested:

• The R.O. assesses the current status of the Safety Management System (SMS) for compliance with ISM Code requirements.
• If necessary, an audit or inspection is conducted to confirm continued compliance and effectiveness.
• Upon satisfaction, a formal extension of the SMC is issued, indicating a new validity period.

(iv) When revision of an entry in the certificate is requested:

• The R.O. reviews the revision request to ensure it meets ISM Code requirements.
• A verification audit may be required if significant changes are involved.
• Upon approval, a revised SMC is issued, and the previous certificate is revoked.

The Safety Management Certificate (SMC) and Document of Compliance (DOC) may be invalidated under the following circumstances:

• Major Nonconformities identified.
• Failure to address Nonconformities.
• Changes in Ownership or Management.
• Non-Compliance with the ISM Code.
• Inadequate Resources or Support.
• Deliberate Misrepresentation.
• Corrective actions not taken within the specified time period.
• Periodical Verification not conducted or carried out.
• Renewal Assessment missing or not completed.
• Failure to resolve existing Major Nonconformities.
• Cancellation requested by the DOC holder.
• Substantial modifications or major changes to the ship's operation not communicated or rectified.

Objectives:

The primary objective of SOLAS Chapter XII, titled "Additional Safety Measures for Bulk Carriers," is to enhance the safety of bulk carriers and prevent their loss by addressing the unique risks associated with these vessels, particularly those carrying high-density solid bulk cargoes. Key objectives include:

1. Structural Integrity: Ensuring that the structure of bulk carriers, especially the foremost cargo hold and transverse bulkheads, is sufficient to withstand flooding and resulting dynamic forces.
2. Damage Stability: Requiring bulk carriers to meet specific damage stability criteria to remain afloat and stable after the flooding of one or more cargo holds.
3. Preventing Accidents: Mitigating the risks of structural failure, progressive flooding, and loss of life at sea.

Scope (Application):

The chapter generally applies to bulk carriers of 150 meters in length and upwards, in addition to the requirements of other SOLAS chapters. The specific regulations often target:

• Bulk carriers of single-side skin construction.
• Bulk carriers designed to carry solid bulk cargoes with a density of 1,000 kg/m³ and above (for new ships).
• Bulk carriers carrying solid bulk cargoes with a density of 1,780 kg/m³ and above (for certain requirements, particularly regarding older ships and loading restrictions).

Structural and Operational Safety Measures Required for Bulk Carriers Carrying High-Density Cargoes:

Structural Measures (Regulations XII/4 and XII/5)

For bulk carriers of 150 m in length and upwards, designed to carry solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1,000 kg/m³ and above, the following structural and stability requirements are mandated:

1. Damage Stability (Regulation XII/4): The ship must be capable of withstanding the flooding of any one cargo hold and remaining afloat in all loading conditions when loaded to the summer load line.
2. Structural Strength (Regulation XII/5): The ship must have sufficient strength to withstand the flooding of any one cargo hold to the water level outside the ship, considering the dynamic effects of water. Specifically:
   • The transverse watertight bulkhead between the two foremost cargo holds and the double bottom of the foremost cargo hold must have sufficient strength.
   • The structural strength for new ships must comply with standards like the IACS Unified Requirements (e.g., S17, S18, S20) to ensure integrity against flooding.

Operational Measures (Regulations XII/10 and XII/11)

1. Solid Bulk Cargo Density Declaration (Regulation XII/10):
   • The shipper is required to declare the density of the solid bulk cargo to the master. This information is critical for the master to calculate and monitor the ship's stability and strength during loading and the voyage.
2. Loading Instrument (Regulation XII/11):
   • Bulk carriers must be fitted with a loading instrument (loading computer and software) capable of calculating and monitoring the hull girder shear forces and bending moments in any loading or ballast condition. This ensures the ship's structural limits are not exceeded.
3. Restrictions on Sailing with Any Hold Empty (Regulation XII/14):
   • For existing single-side skin bulk carriers (over 10 years old and 150m in length and upwards) carrying cargoes with a density of 1,780 kg/m³ and above, they may be banned from sailing with any hold empty (alternate hold loading) if they do not meet certain structural strength requirements. This is a crucial operational restriction to prevent excessive stress and potential structural failure in high-density cargo loading patterns.

Requirements Related to the Fitting of Water Ingress Alarms (Regulation XII/12)

SOLAS Regulation XII/12 mandates that all bulk carriers must be fitted with an approved system of water level detectors (alarms) in specific spaces. The alarms must be both audible and visual and located on the navigation bridge:

1. In Each Cargo Hold: Water level detectors are required to give two separate alarms:
   • Low Level Alarm (Pre-alarm): When the water level above the inner bottom reaches a height of 0.5 meters.
   • High Level Alarm (Main alarm): When the water level reaches a height not less than 15% of the depth of the cargo hold but not more than 2.0 meters.
2. In Ballast Tanks Forward of the Collision Bulkhead: An alarm must be given when the liquid in the tank reaches a level not exceeding 10% of the tank capacity.
3. In Dry or Void Spaces Forward of the Foremost Cargo Hold: An alarm must be given at a water level of 0.1 meters above the deck (excluding chain lockers and small enclosed spaces).

Requirements Related to Loading/Unloading Procedures

While SOLAS Chapter XII primarily focuses on design and equipment, its provisions are strongly linked to operational procedures, specifically:

1. Loading/Unloading Manual: Bulk carriers must be provided with a book (booklet) detailing the ship’s compliance with the requirements of SOLAS Chapter XII and SOLAS Chapter VI. This booklet, which is endorsed by the Administration, confirms compliance with regulations like the damage stability and structural strength criteria.
2. Loading Instrument Use (Regulation XII/11): The loading instrument must be used before and during the loading and unloading of cargo to ensure that the ship's shear forces and bending moments do not exceed allowable limits.
3. Compliance with the IMSBC Code: Bulk carrier operations are governed by the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code, which is mandatory under SOLAS Chapter VI. This Code provides detailed instructions on:
   • Safe stowage and shipment procedures.
   • Precautions for different types of bulk cargoes (including high-density cargoes).
   • Proper distribution of cargo to ensure the hull structure is not overstressed and the ship maintains adequate stability.

Criticality of these Measures for Bulk Carrier Safety

These measures are critical for the safety of bulk carriers due to the inherent risks they face, particularly the danger of rapid loss following structural failure and flooding:

1. Water Ingress Alarms (Early Detection of Flooding):
   • Criticality: Bulk carrier losses are often rapid, stemming from structural failure (e.g., cracked hull or collapsed bulkhead) leading to massive and progressive flooding. Early detection of water ingress is the single most important factor for crew survival and ship recovery.
   • Actionable Time: The low-level (0.5m) and high-level (15% depth) alarms provide the master and crew with critical time—mere minutes—to assess the situation, initiate de-watering (pumping), and potentially prepare for abandonment.
2. Loading/Unloading Procedures and Instruments:
   • Criticality: Bulk carriers, especially those carrying high-density cargoes like iron ore (density > 1,780 kg/m³), are extremely susceptible to high stresses (shear forces and bending moments) if cargo is unevenly loaded. Incorrect loading sequences can lead to permanent structural deformation or immediate catastrophic failure (e.g., hogging or sagging) of the hull girder while still in port or shortly after sailing.
   • Mitigation: The requirement for the Solid Bulk Cargo Density Declaration and the mandatory use of the Loading Instrument ensures that all loading/unloading plans are verified against the ship's approved structural and stability limits, preventing overloading or incorrect distribution that could lead to structural collapse.
   • Alternate Hold Ban: The restriction on sailing with an empty hold when carrying high-density cargoes (for certain older vessels) is critical because this pattern of loading imposes the most extreme stresses on the ship's structure, particularly on the double bottom and transverse bulkheads.

The Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (MLC, 2006) was adopted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) to establish comprehensive rights and protection for seafarers worldwide. It aims to ensure decent working and living conditions onboard ships and is often referred to as the "Seafarers' Bill of Rights."

Structure of MLC, 2006

The Convention consists of three main parts:

1. Articles
   • Contain the fundamental rights and principles of the Convention.
2. Regulations
   • Define the basic obligations and responsibilities of Member States.
3. Code
   • Provides detailed requirements for implementation and is divided into:
     • Part A – Mandatory Standards.
     • Part B – Non-mandatory Guidelines.

Titles of the Convention

The Convention is further divided into five Titles:

• Title 1: Minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship.
• Title 2: Conditions of employment.
• Title 3: Accommodation, recreational facilities, food, and catering.
• Title 4: Health protection, medical care, welfare, and social security protection.
• Title 5: Compliance and enforcement.

Under the MLC, shipowners are required to provide adequate health and safety protection to all seafarers. These protections include:

1. A safe and hygienic working environment onboard.
2. Implementation of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) programmes.
3. Conducting risk assessments and adopting accident prevention measures.
4. Providing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) free of charge.
5. Ensuring access to medical care onboard and ashore, comparable to that available to workers ashore.
6. Establishing procedures for reporting and investigating accidents and occupational diseases.
7. Providing health protection, welfare facilities, and social security protection for seafarers.

The MLC requires every ship to have a fair, effective, and documented onboard complaint procedure to enable seafarers to raise grievances without fear of retaliation.

The procedure generally follows these steps:

1. The seafarer should first submit the complaint to their immediate superior.
2. If the matter is not resolved, it may be escalated to the Head of Department and subsequently to the Master.
3. The seafarer has the right to be accompanied or represented during the complaint process.
4. Complaints must be handled confidentially, and victimization or retaliation against the complainant is prohibited.
5. If the complaint remains unresolved onboard, the seafarer may refer the matter to the Flag State Administration, Port State authorities, or other competent authorities.

The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention 2004, in force 2017) aims to prevent, minimise and ultimately eliminate the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water and sediments, thereby protecting marine environments, human health and biodiversity from invasive species carried in ships' ballast. Objectives are achieved by regulating the exchange and treatment of ballast water to a volume/standard, requiring each ship to have a Ballast Water Management Plan, a Ballast Water Record Book, and to carry an approved (type-approved) Ballast Water Management System (BWMS), with surveys and certification by the flag Administration.

D-1 standard (Ballast Water Exchange Standard): ballast water exchanged must achieve a volumetric exchange efficiency of at least 95% of the ballast water volume, or to leave at least 5% of the water not exchanged? No - The D-1 standard requires that ships exchanging ballast water shall do so with an efficiency of at least 95% volumetric exchange; ships may also demonstrate that they meet the standard by exchanging a volume equal to at least 3 times the tank volume (flow-through) - each tank considered cleaned to 95%, and the discharge is fresh ocean water.

D-2 standard (Ballast Water Performance Standard): limits the concentration of viable organisms and indicator microbes in the DISCHARGED ballast water after treatment as follows: fewer than 10 viable organisms of size >= 50 micrometres per cubic metre; fewer than 10 viable organisms of size 10-50 micrometres per millilitre (i.e., 1,000 per 100 ml); and a limit on indicator microorganisms: less than 250 Vibrio cholerae per 100 ml (as colony forming units within 1 litre? - less than 1 CFU per 100 ml? The standard is: toxic V. cholerae < 1 CFU per 100 ml? The adopted standard: Vibrio cholerae less than 250 per 100 ml? correct figure: less than 250 CFU per 100 cl? I'll use the accepted D-2: E. coli less than 250 CFU per 100 ml; enterococci less than 100 CFU per 100 ml; toxic V. cholerae less than 1 CFU per 100 ml). I will state indicator microbes: V. cholerae < 1 CFU per 100 ml, E. coli < 250 CFU per 100 ml and Intestinal enterococci < 100 CFU per 100 ml.

Difference: D-1 (exchange) is an operational/physical method replacing ballast water in mid-ocean with open-ocean water, aimed at flushing out coastal organisms; D-2 (performance/treatment) is an absolute discharge standard limiting the number of viable organisms and indicator microbes in the water actually discharged, regardless of how achieved (treatment). D-1 is a "grandfather" approach phased out in favour of D-2 by a schedule of compliance dates; D-2 requires a type-approved treatment system installed (unless the ship is exempted/phase-1).

Methods:

1. Sequential method: fully empty each ballast tank, then refill with open-ocean water within the exchange area.
2. Flow-through method: pump open-ocean water into the tank while discharging existing water simultaneously, until 3 tank-volumes have been passed, achieving about 95% exchange efficiency but requiring careful control of tank levels/pressure.
3. Dilution method (less common): draw open-ocean water into the ballast system along with the existing water to dilute and discharge.

Precautions and limitations:

• Exchange only in areas at least 200 nautical miles from the nearest land and in water depths of at least 200 metres (when possible), and at least 50 nm from land if not possible, as per the guidelines; record the position and that exchange was compliant.
• Structural/safety: emptying several tanks affects stability, trim, sloshing, free-surface effect and bending moments; the operation must follow the BWM plan and the vessel's stability/strength criteria; avoid emptying adjacent tanks that could impair longitudinal strength; monitor trim/list.
• If exchange cannot safely be performed (bad weather, ice, constrained position), the plan must state the reason and alternative; such ships may need to justify non-compliance at next port.
• Flow-through requires the tank to be vented adequately to prevent pressure build-up/overpressure and to provide sufficient head to pump out; pump capacity limits exchange time.
• Only exchange with open-ocean water rather than coastal water to get the better-quality organisms-free water; organisms may still survive in those conditions, hence exchange is a "reduction" not absolute safeguard; treatment (D-2) eventually replaces exchange.
• Crew competence, and records in the Ballast Water Record Book.

(a) Checks and Preparations for IOPP Renewal Survey

As the 2nd Engineer, the following checks and preparations will be carried out in the engine room before the IOPP renewal survey:

1. Oil Pollution Prevention Equipment Check:
   • Ensure Oily Water Separator (OWS) and Oil Content Monitor (OCM) are in good working condition.
   • Verify calibration dates of OCM.
   • Check automatic stopping device and associated alarms.
2. Oily Discharge Monitoring Equipment:
   • Confirm the ODME, if applicable, is functioning properly and alarm system is working.
   • Verify if any seals have been broken and record the same in the Seal Log Book.
3. Piping and Valve Arrangements:
   • Check overboard discharge valves and associated pipelines for integrity and operability.
   • Inspect bilge pumps and related valves for proper operation.
4. Sludge and Bilge Holding Tanks:
   • Ensure bilge holding tanks and sludge tanks are clean, operational, and gauges are functional.
   • Confirm sludge transfer and disposal systems are functional (e.g., transfer pump, piping).
5. Standard Discharge Connection:
   • Present the standard discharge connection with the appropriate dimensions as per MARPOL.
6. Incinerator and Other Disposal Means:
   • Ensure incinerator, auxiliary boiler, or sludge mixing system (if fitted) is operational.
   • Check relevant parameters and logs for recent operations.
7. Pumps and Valves:
   • Inspect sludge pumps, manual discharge valves, and remote controls.
8. Signage and Placards:
   • Ensure pollution prevention placards and operating instructions are posted near equipment.
9. Condition of Engine Room:
   • Keep bilges clean and free from excess oil.
   • Ensure all equipment is clearly labeled and accessible for inspection.
10. Personnel Preparedness:

• Brief all relevant engine room personnel about the upcoming survey and responsibilities during surveyor attendance.

(b) Records, Procedures, Certificates for Surveyor’s Verification (10 Marks)

The following documents and records will be prepared and kept ready for submission to the attending surveyor:

1. Oil Record Book (ORB) Part I:
   • Ensure all entries are up-to-date, accurate, and signed by the responsible officer and Master.
   • Highlight entries involving sludge disposal, bilge discharge, and equipment maintenance.
2. Seal Log Book:
   • Record of any broken or replaced seals on OWS/ODME systems with valid justifications.
3. IOPP Certificate (Existing):
   • Present the expiring IOPP certificate and Record of Construction and Equipment (Form A or B).
4. Calibration Certificates:
   • Provide valid calibration certificates for OCM, ODME, and other related pollution prevention equipment.
5. Maintenance Records:
   • Show planned maintenance records for bilge system, OWS, incinerator, ODME, etc.
6. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP):
   • Ensure the latest revision is available and updated with:
     • Contact details
     • Internal and external reporting procedures
     • Action plans and drills conducted
   • Test Reports and Checklists:
     • Any recent internal test reports or checklists for oil discharge systems and equipment.
   • Incinerator Log (if applicable):
     • Record of burning oil residues with time, date, and quantity burned.
   • Crew Familiarization and Training Records:
     • Evidence that relevant personnel have been trained in operating pollution prevention equipment.
   • Class and Flag Documentation:

• Keep ready any recent class survey reports, deficiency rectification records, and relevant correspondence with the administration or RO.

IMO Resolution MEPC.312(74): Guidelines on the Use of Electronic Record Books (ERBs) under MARPOL

IMO Resolution MEPC.312(74) provides comprehensive guidelines for the adoption of Electronic Record Books (ERBs) as valid alternatives to traditional paper-based logbooks, in accordance with MARPOL requirements. These guidelines promote digital recordkeeping while ensuring compliance, transparency, and integrity.

Under MARPOL, the following record books are permitted to be maintained in electronic format, provided they are approved by the Flag State:

1. Oil Record Book (ORB)
   • Part I: Machinery space operations (Annex I, Regulation 17.1)
   • Part II: Cargo/ballast operations (Annex I, Regulation 36.1)
2. Cargo Record Book
   • For noxious liquid substances in bulk (Annex II, Regulation 15.1)
3. Garbage Record Book (GRB)
   • Part I: General garbage disposal (Annex V, Regulation 10.3)
   • Part II: Cargo residues (required for solid bulk carriers)
4. Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Record Book
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 12.6)
5. Record of Tier and On/Off Status of Marine Diesel Engines
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 13.5.3)
6. Record of Fuel Oil Changeover
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 14.6)
7. Record Book of Engine Parameters
   • (NOx Technical Code, Paragraph 6.2.2.7)

Approval Process for Electronic Record Books (ERBs)

For an Electronic Record Book to be considered legally valid under MARPOL, it must undergo an approval process primarily involving the Flag State:

• Flag State Approval: The ERB system must be reviewed and approved by the vessel's Flag State administration. This approval confirms that the electronic system meets all the technical and operational requirements set forth in MEPC.312(74).
• Declaration of MARPOL Electronic Record Book: Upon approval, a specific document, the "Declaration of MARPOL Electronic Record Book," is issued. This declaration serves as proof of the ERB's legal equivalence to a paper record book and must be carried on board.
• Compliance with Guidelines: The approval process ensures that the ERB system adheres to the guidelines regarding data retention, hard copy capability, timely verification, audit trails, and integration with the Safety Management System (SMS).

The adoption of ERBs offers several significant advantages over traditional paper-based record books:

• Improved Accuracy and Legibility: Eliminates issues of poor handwriting and manual calculation errors. Many systems incorporate validation checks and auto-fill features.
• Enhanced Efficiency: Streamlines the recording process, reduces administrative burden, and allows for quicker data entry and retrieval.
• Better Data Management and Analysis: Facilitates easier storage, search, and analysis of data. Trends and compliance status can be monitored more effectively.
• Reduced Risk of Loss or Damage: Electronic records are less susceptible to physical damage, loss, or deterioration compared to paper records, especially with proper backup protocols.
• Simplified Inspections and Audits: Provides inspectors and auditors with quick and easy access to required information, including audit trails of all entries and amendments.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduces paper consumption and associated logistics.
• Improved Compliance Monitoring: Can be integrated with other shipboard systems to automatically record data and provide alerts for potential non-compliance.

Measures Required to Ensure Data Integrity and Security

Robust security measures are required to ensure data integrity, prevent unauthorized access, and maintain accountability in ERBs:

1. Access Control
   • Role-based login systems with unique user credentials (e.g., usernames and passwords) to restrict who can view, enter, or verify data.
2. Audit Logging
   • Tracks all user activities including entries, edits, verifications, with detailed logs of who did what and when. This provides an unalterable history of all actions.
3. Tamper-Proof Design
   • Original entries cannot be deleted. Amendments are logged and must show both the original and modified data, along with the reason for the change and the person making it.
4. Digital Signatures
   • Master’s verification must be secured using additional authentication layers, such as two-factor authentication or PINs, to ensure the authenticity of the verification.
5. Data Backup and Encryption
   • Automatic data backups must be performed regularly to prevent data loss. All records must be stored with encryption to prevent unauthorized access or disclosure of sensitive information.

SAFE MANNING MANUAL

For a 26,000 GRT Bulk Carrier

1. Purpose

The purpose of this manual is to ensure that the vessel is safely manned in accordance with:

• International Maritime Organization (IMO) Resolution A.1047(27)
• SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 14
• STCW Convention
• Maritime Labour Convention (MLC)
• ISM Code

This manual also takes into account:

• Frequent port calls
• Rest-hour management
• High-risk/piracy areas
• Cargo and emergency operations

2. Ship Particulars

3. Safe Manning Objectives

Safe manning arrangements shall ensure:

1. Safe navigation and watchkeeping
2. Safe cargo handling operations
3. Safe engine-room operation
4. Pollution prevention
5. Compliance with rest-hour regulations
6. Emergency preparedness
7. Security duties during high-risk area transit

4. Minimum Manning Scale

Deck Department

• Master – 1
• Chief Officer – 1
• Second Officer – 1
• Third Officer – 1
• Bosun – 1
• Able Seaman – 3
• Ordinary Seaman – 1
• Deck Cadet – 1

Engine Department

• Chief Engineer – 1
• Second Engineer – 1
• Third Engineer – 1
• Fourth Engineer – 1
• Electro-Technical Officer (ETO) – 1
• Oilers/Motormen – 3
• Engine Cadet – 1

Catering Department

• Chief Cook – 1
• Steward – 1

Total Crew: 20

Additional manpower is maintained due to:

• Cargo loading and discharging operations
• Frequent port calls
• Fatigue prevention
• High-risk area transit

5. Watchkeeping Arrangement

Bridge Watches

The same watch schedule is repeated for the next 12 hours.

• An Able Seaman (AB) lookout shall be posted at all times.

Engine Watches

• UMS operation shall be maintained at sea.
• Duty engineer shall remain on call.
• Additional engine staff shall be available during manoeuvring and cargo operations.

6. Rest Hour Management

As per STCW requirements:

• Minimum 10 hours rest in any 24-hour period
• Minimum 77 hours rest in any 7-day period
• Rest hours may be divided into a maximum of two periods
• One period of rest must be at least 6 continuous hours

Fatigue Control Measures

• Rest hours shall be recorded daily.
• Overtime shall be monitored by the Master.
• Compensatory rest shall be provided after heavy cargo operations.
• Drills shall be planned to avoid excessive fatigue.

7. Frequent Port Call Management

Frequent loading and discharging operations increase crew workload due to:

• Mooring operations
• Cargo watchkeeping
• Ballast operations
• Hatch cover operations
• Documentation work

Control Measures

• Extra deck ratings shall be assigned during mooring operations.
• Cargo watch rotation shall be carried out every 6 hours.
• Additional engine attendance shall be maintained during port stay.
• Non-essential maintenance work shall be postponed during busy operational schedules.

8. High-Risk Area Procedures

During transit through piracy-prone or high-risk areas:

• Additional bridge lookout shall be posted.
• Engine room shall be kept on standby condition.
• Security patrols shall be increased.
• Access control measures shall be strictly maintained.
• Emergency anti-piracy procedures shall be kept ready for immediate use.

9. Emergency Preparedness

The vessel shall carry sufficient crew for effective response to:

• Firefighting
• Lifeboat launching
• Flooding and damage control
• Medical emergencies
• Pollution response

Regular emergency drills shall be conducted without causing excessive disturbance to crew rest hours.

10. Master’s Responsibility

The Master shall:

• Ensure compliance with safe manning requirements
• Monitor crew fatigue levels
• Maintain proper watchkeeping standards
• Report unsafe manning conditions to the company

11. Company Responsibility

The company shall:

• Provide qualified and certified crew
• Ensure proper relief planning
• Prevent excessive crew workload
• Support fatigue management systems

12. Conclusion

Safe manning on a 26,000 GRT bulk carrier is essential for:

• Safe navigation
• Efficient cargo handling
• Emergency response
• Pollution prevention
• Crew welfare

Principle of Port State Control (PSC)

In addition to a ship's country of registration (the "Flag State"), any other country a ship visits is considered a "Port State." It's the Flag State's primary duty to ensure that a ship flying its flag is safely constructed, properly equipped, adequately maintained, and sufficiently manned as per regulations based on International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions. To achieve this, the Flag State conducts surveys and inspections on vessels under its registry for the issuance of various statutory certificates.

However, many ships may not call at their home ports for considerable periods. Therefore, it's crucial that ships are inspected at various ports to ensure ongoing compliance with requirements related to safety, maintenance, manning, and pollution prevention. This system of inspection and enforcement by a country in its ports on foreign-flagged ships is termed Port State Control.

Verification by the Port State Control Officer (PSCO)

The PSCO will check:

• If the emergency generator starts automatically upon failure of the main power supply.
• To conduct an operational test on the emergency generator under load.
• That emergency lighting is working.
• That the method of operation is clearly posted.

The PSCO will verify that the auxiliary steering gear:

• Is capable of moving the rudder from 15 degrees on one side to 15 degrees on the other side in not more than 60 seconds when the ship is at its deepest draught and running ahead at half of its maximum ahead service speed, or 7 knots, whichever is greater.
• Restarts automatically after power is restored following a failure.
• Can be restarted from the bridge.
• Activates an alarm in case of a power failure.

The PSCO will require:

• The lifeboat engine to be started and shown in running condition.
• All relevant parameters to be checked.
• Ahead and astern running of the engine to be demonstrated.
• The engine, after starting, should be able to run for at least 5 minutes without water.

The PSCO will:

• Request a trial of the bilge pumps.
• Ask for a demonstration of bilge suction from different locations, particularly from the furthest location from the engine room.
• Also wish to see the functioning of the Oil Water Separator (OWS) and the 15 ppm overboard discharge alarm.

The PSCO will:

• Check the SOPEP locker.
• Verify the list of oil spill response gear as required by the SOPEP, which typically includes:
  • Absorber rolls
  • Absorbent pads
  • Absorbent granules
  • Other absorbent materials (e.g., sawdust)
  • Brooms, shovels, mops, scoops
  • Oil Spill Dispersant (OSD)
  • Empty receptacles, buckets
  • Portable air-driven pumps
• The PSCO may also check that the ship's personnel are conversant with the emergency plan and the actions to be taken in case of pollution.

(a) Conditions of Assignment

Conditions of Assignment are the requirements laid down by the Load Line Convention that a ship must comply with throughout its entire service life in order to retain its assigned load line and freeboard.

These conditions mainly relate to:

• Watertight integrity below the freeboard deck
• Weathertight integrity above the freeboard deck

Compliance with the Conditions of Assignment is mandatory, as only by meeting these requirements can a ship safely load up to its assigned load line.

On board container ships, a comprehensive set of statutory certificates and documents must be carried to demonstrate compliance with international conventions and national regulations. These documents are crucial for ensuring the safety of life at sea, preventing marine pollution, ensuring ship security, and safeguarding the welfare of seafarers. Below are various such certificates and documents, with references to their conventions and justifications for their requirement:

1. International Tonnage Certificate (1969)

   • Convention: International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969 (TONNAGE 69)
   • Justification: This certificate provides a uniform system for measuring the gross and net tonnage of a ship, which is used for calculating port dues, pilotage fees, and determining the application of various regulations.

2. International Load Line Certificate

   • Convention: International Convention on Load Lines, 1966 (LL 66)
   • Justification: Certifies that the ship has been surveyed and marked with appropriate load lines for different zones and seasons, ensuring adequate freeboard and stability to prevent overloading and enhance safety.

3. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate

   • Convention: SOLAS Convention, Chapter II-1 (Construction – Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations)
   • Justification: Attests that the ship's structure, machinery, and electrical installations comply with SOLAS requirements, ensuring the ship's structural integrity and operational safety.

4. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate

   • Convention: SOLAS Convention, Chapter II-2 (Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction) and Chapter III (Life-saving appliances and arrangements)
   • Justification: Confirms that the ship is fitted with the required life-saving appliances, fire-fighting systems, and other safety equipment in accordance with SOLAS, crucial for the safety of life at sea.

5. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate

   • Convention: SOLAS Convention, Chapter IV (Radiocommunications)
   • Justification: Verifies that the ship's radio equipment and installations comply with GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress and Safety System) requirements, ensuring effective communication for distress and safety purposes.

6. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP Certificate)

   • Convention: MARPOL Annex I (Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil)
   • Justification: Certifies that the ship's construction, equipment, and operational procedures comply with MARPOL Annex I regulations to prevent pollution of the marine environment by oil.

7. International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate (IAPP Certificate)

   • Convention: MARPOL Annex VI (Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships)
   • Justification: Confirms that the ship's engines, fuel, and exhaust gas cleaning systems (if fitted) comply with MARPOL Annex VI regulations to control emissions of harmful substances like NOx, SOx, and particulate matter.

8. International Energy Efficiency Certificate (IEEC)

   • Convention: MARPOL Annex VI (Chapter 4 - Regulations on energy efficiency for ships)
   • Justification: Certifies that the ship has been surveyed and complies with the energy efficiency requirements, including the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP), promoting greener shipping.

9. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate (ISPPC)

   • Convention: MARPOL Annex IV (Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships)
   • Justification: Attests that the ship's sewage treatment plant or holding tank arrangements comply with MARPOL Annex IV to prevent pollution from sewage.

10. International Anti-fouling System Certificate (IAFSC)

    • Convention: International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention)
    • Justification: Certifies that the ship's anti-fouling systems comply with the AFS Convention, prohibiting or restricting the use of harmful anti-fouling paints.

11. International Ship Security Certificate (ISSC)

    • Convention: SOLAS Chapter XI-2 and the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code
    • Justification: Confirms that the ship and its company comply with the ISPS Code, having an approved Ship Security Plan and security arrangements in place to deter and detect security threats.

12. Safety Management Certificate (SMC) & Document of Compliance (DOC)

    • Convention: SOLAS Chapter IX and the International Safety Management (ISM) Code
    • Justification: The DOC is issued to the company, confirming its safety management system complies with the ISM Code. The SMC is issued to the ship, confirming that the ship and its company operate in accordance with the approved Safety Management System (SMS), ensuring safe operation and pollution prevention.

13. Maritime Labour Certificate (MLC) & Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance (DMLC)

    • Convention: Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (MLC, 2006)
    • Justification: The MLC certifies that the ship provides decent working and living conditions for seafarers. The DMLC (Parts I & II) details how the ship complies with national and international requirements for seafarer welfare.

14. International Ballast Water Management Certificate (IBWMC)

    • Convention: International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (BWM Convention)
    • Justification: Certifies that the ship has been surveyed and complies with the BWM Convention, having an approved Ballast Water Management Plan and appropriate systems to prevent the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens.

15. Continuous Synopsis Record (CSR)

    • Convention: SOLAS Chapter XI-1, Regulation 5
    • Justification: Provides a continuous history of the ship, including its name, flag, owner, and classification society, ensuring transparency and traceability of the ship's operational history.

16. Minimum Safe Manning Document

    • Convention: SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 14 and STCW Convention
    • Justification: Specifies the minimum number and grades of qualified seafarers required to safely operate the ship, ensuring adequate personnel for all operational and emergency duties.

17. Certificates of Competency (CoC) & Certificates of Proficiency (CoP) for Crew

    • Convention: STCW Convention, 1978, as amended
    • Justification: Individual certificates held by officers and ratings, attesting to their qualifications, training, and competence to perform their duties safely and efficiently, ensuring a qualified and capable crew.

18. Bunker Convention Certificate (Certificate of Insurance or Other Financial Security in respect of Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage)

    • Convention: International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 (Bunker Convention)
    • Justification: Provides evidence of financial security to cover civil liability for pollution damage caused by bunker oil from the ship.

19. Deratting Exemption Certificate / Deratting Certificate

    • Convention: International Health Regulations (WHO)
    • Justification: Certifies that the ship is free from rats and mice, preventing the spread of disease and complying with public health requirements.

20. Statutory Plans and Manuals (e.g., SOPEP, Garbage Management Plan, Cargo Securing Manual, Stability Information, Fire Control Plan)

    • Convention: Various (e.g., MARPOL Annex I, V; SOLAS Chapters II-1, II-2, VI, VII)
    • Justification: These documents, though not 'certificates', are statutory requirements detailing procedures and information critical for safe operation, pollution prevention, and emergency response. For example, the Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) outlines procedures for oil spill response, the Garbage Management Plan details waste handling, and the Cargo Securing Manual provides guidance for safe cargo stowage.

Objectives:

The primary objective of SOLAS Chapter XII, titled "Additional Safety Measures for Bulk Carriers," is to enhance the safety of bulk carriers and prevent their loss by addressing the unique risks associated with these vessels, particularly those carrying high-density solid bulk cargoes. Key objectives include:

1. Structural Integrity: Ensuring that the structure of bulk carriers, especially the foremost cargo hold and transverse bulkheads, is sufficient to withstand flooding and resulting dynamic forces.
2. Damage Stability: Requiring bulk carriers to meet specific damage stability criteria to remain afloat and stable after the flooding of one or more cargo holds.
3. Preventing Accidents: Mitigating the risks of structural failure, progressive flooding, and loss of life at sea.

Scope (Application):

The chapter generally applies to bulk carriers of 150 meters in length and upwards, in addition to the requirements of other SOLAS chapters. The specific regulations often target:

• Bulk carriers of single-side skin construction.
• Bulk carriers designed to carry solid bulk cargoes with a density of 1,000 kg/m³ and above (for new ships).
• Bulk carriers carrying solid bulk cargoes with a density of 1,780 kg/m³ and above (for certain requirements, particularly regarding older ships and loading restrictions).

Structural and Operational Safety Measures Required for Bulk Carriers Carrying High-Density Cargoes:

Structural Measures (Regulations XII/4 and XII/5)

For bulk carriers of 150 m in length and upwards, designed to carry solid bulk cargoes having a density of 1,000 kg/m³ and above, the following structural and stability requirements are mandated:

1. Damage Stability (Regulation XII/4): The ship must be capable of withstanding the flooding of any one cargo hold and remaining afloat in all loading conditions when loaded to the summer load line.
2. Structural Strength (Regulation XII/5): The ship must have sufficient strength to withstand the flooding of any one cargo hold to the water level outside the ship, considering the dynamic effects of water. Specifically:
   • The transverse watertight bulkhead between the two foremost cargo holds and the double bottom of the foremost cargo hold must have sufficient strength.
   • The structural strength for new ships must comply with standards like the IACS Unified Requirements (e.g., S17, S18, S20) to ensure integrity against flooding.

Operational Measures (Regulations XII/10 and XII/11)

1. Solid Bulk Cargo Density Declaration (Regulation XII/10):
   • The shipper is required to declare the density of the solid bulk cargo to the master. This information is critical for the master to calculate and monitor the ship's stability and strength during loading and the voyage.
2. Loading Instrument (Regulation XII/11):
   • Bulk carriers must be fitted with a loading instrument (loading computer and software) capable of calculating and monitoring the hull girder shear forces and bending moments in any loading or ballast condition. This ensures the ship's structural limits are not exceeded.
3. Restrictions on Sailing with Any Hold Empty (Regulation XII/14):
   • For existing single-side skin bulk carriers (over 10 years old and 150m in length and upwards) carrying cargoes with a density of 1,780 kg/m³ and above, they may be banned from sailing with any hold empty (alternate hold loading) if they do not meet certain structural strength requirements. This is a crucial operational restriction to prevent excessive stress and potential structural failure in high-density cargo loading patterns.

Requirements Related to the Fitting of Water Ingress Alarms (Regulation XII/12)

SOLAS Regulation XII/12 mandates that all bulk carriers must be fitted with an approved system of water level detectors (alarms) in specific spaces. The alarms must be both audible and visual and located on the navigation bridge:

1. In Each Cargo Hold: Water level detectors are required to give two separate alarms:
   • Low Level Alarm (Pre-alarm): When the water level above the inner bottom reaches a height of 0.5 meters.
   • High Level Alarm (Main alarm): When the water level reaches a height not less than 15% of the depth of the cargo hold but not more than 2.0 meters.
2. In Ballast Tanks Forward of the Collision Bulkhead: An alarm must be given when the liquid in the tank reaches a level not exceeding 10% of the tank capacity.
3. In Dry or Void Spaces Forward of the Foremost Cargo Hold: An alarm must be given at a water level of 0.1 meters above the deck (excluding chain lockers and small enclosed spaces).

Requirements Related to Loading/Unloading Procedures

While SOLAS Chapter XII primarily focuses on design and equipment, its provisions are strongly linked to operational procedures, specifically:

1. Loading/Unloading Manual: Bulk carriers must be provided with a book (booklet) detailing the ship’s compliance with the requirements of SOLAS Chapter XII and SOLAS Chapter VI. This booklet, which is endorsed by the Administration, confirms compliance with regulations like the damage stability and structural strength criteria.
2. Loading Instrument Use (Regulation XII/11): The loading instrument must be used before and during the loading and unloading of cargo to ensure that the ship's shear forces and bending moments do not exceed allowable limits.
3. Compliance with the IMSBC Code: Bulk carrier operations are governed by the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code, which is mandatory under SOLAS Chapter VI. This Code provides detailed instructions on:
   • Safe stowage and shipment procedures.
   • Precautions for different types of bulk cargoes (including high-density cargoes).
   • Proper distribution of cargo to ensure the hull structure is not overstressed and the ship maintains adequate stability.

Criticality of these Measures for Bulk Carrier Safety

These measures are critical for the safety of bulk carriers due to the inherent risks they face, particularly the danger of rapid loss following structural failure and flooding:

1. Water Ingress Alarms (Early Detection of Flooding):
   • Criticality: Bulk carrier losses are often rapid, stemming from structural failure (e.g., cracked hull or collapsed bulkhead) leading to massive and progressive flooding. Early detection of water ingress is the single most important factor for crew survival and ship recovery.
   • Actionable Time: The low-level (0.5m) and high-level (15% depth) alarms provide the master and crew with critical time—mere minutes—to assess the situation, initiate de-watering (pumping), and potentially prepare for abandonment.
2. Loading/Unloading Procedures and Instruments:
   • Criticality: Bulk carriers, especially those carrying high-density cargoes like iron ore (density > 1,780 kg/m³), are extremely susceptible to high stresses (shear forces and bending moments) if cargo is unevenly loaded. Incorrect loading sequences can lead to permanent structural deformation or immediate catastrophic failure (e.g., hogging or sagging) of the hull girder while still in port or shortly after sailing.
   • Mitigation: The requirement for the Solid Bulk Cargo Density Declaration and the mandatory use of the Loading Instrument ensures that all loading/unloading plans are verified against the ship's approved structural and stability limits, preventing overloading or incorrect distribution that could lead to structural collapse.
   • Alternate Hold Ban: The restriction on sailing with an empty hold when carrying high-density cargoes (for certain older vessels) is critical because this pattern of loading imposes the most extreme stresses on the ship's structure, particularly on the double bottom and transverse bulkheads.

The Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (MLC, 2006) was adopted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) to establish comprehensive rights and protection for seafarers worldwide. It aims to ensure decent working and living conditions onboard ships and is often referred to as the "Seafarers' Bill of Rights."

Structure of MLC, 2006

The Convention consists of three main parts:

1. Articles
   • Contain the fundamental rights and principles of the Convention.
2. Regulations
   • Define the basic obligations and responsibilities of Member States.
3. Code
   • Provides detailed requirements for implementation and is divided into:
     • Part A – Mandatory Standards.
     • Part B – Non-mandatory Guidelines.

Titles of the Convention

The Convention is further divided into five Titles:

• Title 1: Minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship.
• Title 2: Conditions of employment.
• Title 3: Accommodation, recreational facilities, food, and catering.
• Title 4: Health protection, medical care, welfare, and social security protection.
• Title 5: Compliance and enforcement.

Under the MLC, shipowners are required to provide adequate health and safety protection to all seafarers. These protections include:

1. A safe and hygienic working environment onboard.
2. Implementation of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) programmes.
3. Conducting risk assessments and adopting accident prevention measures.
4. Providing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) free of charge.
5. Ensuring access to medical care onboard and ashore, comparable to that available to workers ashore.
6. Establishing procedures for reporting and investigating accidents and occupational diseases.
7. Providing health protection, welfare facilities, and social security protection for seafarers.

The MLC requires every ship to have a fair, effective, and documented onboard complaint procedure to enable seafarers to raise grievances without fear of retaliation.

The procedure generally follows these steps:

1. The seafarer should first submit the complaint to their immediate superior.
2. If the matter is not resolved, it may be escalated to the Head of Department and subsequently to the Master.
3. The seafarer has the right to be accompanied or represented during the complaint process.
4. Complaints must be handled confidentially, and victimization or retaliation against the complainant is prohibited.
5. If the complaint remains unresolved onboard, the seafarer may refer the matter to the Flag State Administration, Port State authorities, or other competent authorities.

The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships is a treaty that sets global standards for safe and environmentally sound ship recycling. Its main aim is to ensure that ships, when recycled at the end of their service lives, do not pose unnecessary risks to human health, safety, or the environment.

The Convention will enter into force 24 months after 15 States (representing at least 40% of global merchant shipping by gross tonnage) have signed or ratified it.

Salient Features of the Convention:

• Historical Background: Changed terminology from "scrapping" to "recycling," promoting the idea that every part of a ship should be recycled as practically as possible.
• "Nothing Goes to Waste": Emphasizes minimal waste, with steel reprocessed, generators reused, batteries repurposed, hydrocarbons reclaimed, and light fittings finding second lives ashore.
• Ship Recycling as a “Green” Industry: When done properly, it is considered a green and sustainable industry, though it addresses the need for improved working conditions and environmental practices in recycling yards.
• Introduction of the “Green Passport”: A document containing a comprehensive inventory of hazardous materials used in the ship’s construction, prepared at the shipbuilding stage, updated throughout the ship's life, and delivered to the recycling yard.
• Objectives of the Convention: To ensure that ships, when recycled, do not pose unnecessary risks to human health, safety, or the environment.
• Key Issues Addressed: Responds to concerns about hazardous substances on board ships (e.g., asbestos, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, ozone-depleting substances) and poor working conditions and environmental standards at many ship recycling facilities.
• Scope of Regulations: Covers the entire life cycle of ships with respect to recycling, including:
  • Design, Construction, Operation, and Preparation of Ships to support safe and environmentally sound recycling.
  • Operation of Ship Recycling Facilities to ensure they function safely and in an environmentally sound manner.
  • Enforcement Mechanism involving certification, inspection, and reporting procedures.
• Recycling Process Requirements:
  • Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM): Ships must maintain an IHM, unique to each vessel. An appendix lists materials that are restricted or prohibited.
  • Pre-Recycling Surveys: Ships undergo an initial survey, periodic surveys, and a final survey prior to recycling.
  • Ship Recycling Plan: Recycling facilities must prepare a plan detailing how the ship will be dismantled, considering its specifications and hazardous materials inventory. State parties ensure compliance of facilities under their jurisdiction.
  Part (b)

  How inventory of Hazardous materials (IHM) Part I under Hong Kong conventions is made for ships in operation? What is the Scope of IHM Part I?

  The guidelines introduced the “Green Passport”, which is now referred to as the Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM). For ships in operation, the IHM is made and maintained as follows:

  • Prepared at the shipbuilding stage and handed to the first owner.
  • Updated throughout the ship's life by successive owners.
  • Delivered to the recycling yard along with the vessel at end-of-life.

  Ships must maintain an Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM), unique to each vessel. This involves:

  • An initial survey to verify the IHM.
  • Periodic surveys during operational life to ensure it is kept up-to-date.
  • A final survey prior to recycling.

  Scope of IHM Part I:

  An appendix to the Convention lists materials that are restricted or prohibited in shipyards and onboard ships. This list defines the scope of hazardous materials that must be identified and inventoried in the IHM Part I, which typically covers hazardous materials contained in the ship's structure and equipment.

IMO Resolution MEPC.312(74): Guidelines on the Use of Electronic Record Books (ERBs) under MARPOL

IMO Resolution MEPC.312(74) provides comprehensive guidelines for the adoption of Electronic Record Books (ERBs) as valid alternatives to traditional paper-based logbooks, in accordance with MARPOL requirements. These guidelines promote digital recordkeeping while ensuring compliance, transparency, and integrity.

Under MARPOL, the following record books are permitted to be maintained in electronic format, provided they are approved by the Flag State:

1. Oil Record Book (ORB)
   • Part I: Machinery space operations (Annex I, Regulation 17.1)
   • Part II: Cargo/ballast operations (Annex I, Regulation 36.1)
2. Cargo Record Book
   • For noxious liquid substances in bulk (Annex II, Regulation 15.1)
3. Garbage Record Book (GRB)
   • Part I: General garbage disposal (Annex V, Regulation 10.3)
   • Part II: Cargo residues (required for solid bulk carriers)
4. Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Record Book
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 12.6)
5. Record of Tier and On/Off Status of Marine Diesel Engines
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 13.5.3)
6. Record of Fuel Oil Changeover
   • (Annex VI, Regulation 14.6)
7. Record Book of Engine Parameters
   • (NOx Technical Code, Paragraph 6.2.2.7)

Approval Process for Electronic Record Books (ERBs)

For an Electronic Record Book to be considered legally valid under MARPOL, it must undergo an approval process primarily involving the Flag State:

• Flag State Approval: The ERB system must be reviewed and approved by the vessel's Flag State administration. This approval confirms that the electronic system meets all the technical and operational requirements set forth in MEPC.312(74).
• Declaration of MARPOL Electronic Record Book: Upon approval, a specific document, the "Declaration of MARPOL Electronic Record Book," is issued. This declaration serves as proof of the ERB's legal equivalence to a paper record book and must be carried on board.
• Compliance with Guidelines: The approval process ensures that the ERB system adheres to the guidelines regarding data retention, hard copy capability, timely verification, audit trails, and integration with the Safety Management System (SMS).

The adoption of ERBs offers several significant advantages over traditional paper-based record books:

• Improved Accuracy and Legibility: Eliminates issues of poor handwriting and manual calculation errors. Many systems incorporate validation checks and auto-fill features.
• Enhanced Efficiency: Streamlines the recording process, reduces administrative burden, and allows for quicker data entry and retrieval.
• Better Data Management and Analysis: Facilitates easier storage, search, and analysis of data. Trends and compliance status can be monitored more effectively.
• Reduced Risk of Loss or Damage: Electronic records are less susceptible to physical damage, loss, or deterioration compared to paper records, especially with proper backup protocols.
• Simplified Inspections and Audits: Provides inspectors and auditors with quick and easy access to required information, including audit trails of all entries and amendments.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduces paper consumption and associated logistics.
• Improved Compliance Monitoring: Can be integrated with other shipboard systems to automatically record data and provide alerts for potential non-compliance.

Measures Required to Ensure Data Integrity and Security

Robust security measures are required to ensure data integrity, prevent unauthorized access, and maintain accountability in ERBs:

1. Access Control
   • Role-based login systems with unique user credentials (e.g., usernames and passwords) to restrict who can view, enter, or verify data.
2. Audit Logging
   • Tracks all user activities including entries, edits, verifications, with detailed logs of who did what and when. This provides an unalterable history of all actions.
3. Tamper-Proof Design
   • Original entries cannot be deleted. Amendments are logged and must show both the original and modified data, along with the reason for the change and the person making it.
4. Digital Signatures
   • Master’s verification must be secured using additional authentication layers, such as two-factor authentication or PINs, to ensure the authenticity of the verification.
5. Data Backup and Encryption
   • Automatic data backups must be performed regularly to prevent data loss. All records must be stored with encryption to prevent unauthorized access or disclosure of sensitive information.

The Enhanced Survey Programme (ESP) is a comprehensive and systematic survey regime introduced by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to ensure the continued structural integrity of ships throughout their service life. It involves more detailed inspections than normal statutory surveys and focuses particularly on detecting corrosion, structural deterioration, fatigue cracks, buckling and steel wastage before they become hazardous.

ESP requires close-up surveys, thickness measurements, detailed structural examinations and extensive documentation, thereby ensuring the vessel remains structurally fit for safe operation.

SOLAS Chapter Covering ESP

The Enhanced Survey Programme is mandatory under:

• SOLAS Chapter XI-1 – Special Measures to Enhance Maritime Safety
• Regulation 2 – Enhanced Surveys

The detailed survey requirements are contained in the IMO ESP Code (International Code on the Enhanced Programme of Inspections During Surveys of Bulk Carriers and Oil Tankers).

Applicability

Types of Vessels

ESP applies mainly to vessels subjected to high structural stresses and corrosive environments, including:

• Oil tankers
  • Single-hull and double-hull tankers
  • Oil/chemical tankers
  • FPSOs (where applicable)
• Bulk carriers
  • Single-side skin bulk carriers
  • Double-side skin bulk carriers
• Combination carriers (OBO carriers) and other ship types where required by the ESP Code.

When ESP Becomes Applicable

New Ships

• ESP requirements apply from the date of delivery.
• They are incorporated into the vessel's normal survey cycle, including:
  • Annual Surveys
  • Intermediate Surveys
  • Special (Renewal) Surveys

  Existing Ships

  • ESP becomes mandatory during the first applicable survey after the regulations came into force.
  • The inspections become progressively more extensive as the vessel ages, particularly from Special Survey No. 3 (approximately 15 years of age) onwards.
  Part (b)

  Procedural Method of ESP

  The ESP survey is carried out in a planned and systematic manner involving the ship's staff, Classification Society surveyor and an approved thickness measurement (TM) company.

  1. Survey Planning and Documentation

  • Review previous survey reports.
  • Examine thickness measurement records.
  • Check repair history and corrosion records.
  • Review coating condition reports.
  • Prepare a detailed Survey Programme jointly agreed between:
    • Ship owner
    • Classification Society
    • Thickness measurement company.

    2. Preparation of Spaces

    Before inspection, all spaces to be surveyed must be properly prepared.

    This includes:

    • Cleaning tanks and structures.
    • Removing mud, sludge, rust scale and oil deposits.
    • Gas-freeing enclosed spaces.
    • Providing adequate ventilation.
    • Arranging sufficient lighting.
    • Providing safe access using staging, rafts or hydraulic platforms.

    3. Close-up Survey and Visual Examination

    The attending surveyor carries out a detailed inspection of structural members for:

    • Corrosion
    • Pitting
    • Cracks
    • Buckling
    • Deformation
    • Fractures
    • Coating breakdown
    • Excessive steel wastage

    Special attention is given to areas known to suffer high stress or corrosion.

    4. Thickness Measurement (TM)

    Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement (UTM) is carried out by an approved company.

    Thickness measurements are taken on:

    • Deck plating
    • Bottom plating
    • Side shell
    • Bulkheads
    • Frames
    • Floors
    • Girders
    • Stringers
    • Other suspect structural members

    The measured values are compared with the original thickness and the allowable corrosion limits specified by the Classification Society.

    5. Evaluation and Reporting

    The surveyor evaluates:

    • Structural condition
    • Remaining plate thickness
    • Corrosion level
    • Need for repairs or steel renewal

    If satisfactory:

    • The Classification Society endorses or renews the vessel's Class.
    • Relevant statutory certificates (including Safety Construction Certificate) are renewed.
    Part (c)

    Engine Room ESP – Responsibilities of the Second Engineer

    Although ESP mainly focuses on the hull structure, cargo spaces and ballast tanks, the Second Engineer is responsible for preparing and presenting all engine room structural spaces that form part of the ship's hull.

    The following areas are normally presented during ESP:

    1. Double Bottom Tanks and Structures

    Prepare and present:

    • Engine room double-bottom ballast tanks
    • Fresh water tanks
    • Fuel oil double-bottom tanks (when included in the survey)

    The following structural members should be clean and accessible:

    • Floors
    • Centre girders
    • Side girders
    • Frames
    • Longitudinals
    • Tank-top (inner bottom) plating

    The surveyor will inspect for:

    • Corrosion
    • Pitting
    • Cracks
    • Buckling
    • Structural deformation

    2. Tank Top (Inner Bottom)

    The tank top beneath:

    • Main engine
    • Auxiliary engines
    • Boilers
    • Heavy machinery

    should be thoroughly cleaned.

    The surveyor checks for:

    • Oil contamination
    • Corrosion
    • Structural distortion
    • Cracks
    • Settlement around machinery foundations

    3. Engine Room Structural Bulkheads

    Present the following bulkheads:

    • Forward engine room bulkhead
    • Aft peak bulkhead (where applicable)
    • Engine room side bulkheads

    Inspection includes:

    • Stiffeners
    • Brackets
    • Web frames
    • Plating
    • Weld seams

    4. Shell Plating and Side Structures

    Present internal shell structures including:

    • Side shell plating
    • Side stringers
    • Web frames
    • Longitudinal stiffeners

    Special attention is paid to:

    • Sea chest areas
    • Bilge regions
    • Main engine seating areas

    where corrosion and fatigue are more likely.

    5. Main Engine Foundation

    The main engine seating is carefully inspected.

    Present:

    • Bedplate seating
    • Foundation girders
    • Chocks
    • Holding-down bolts
    • Side stoppers
    • Welded connections

    The surveyor checks for:

    • Cracks
    • Relative movement
    • Loose holding-down bolts
    • Distortion
    • Foundation settlement

    6. Auxiliary Engine and Generator Foundations

    Present the seating arrangements of:

    • Diesel generators
    • Auxiliary machinery
    • Compressors
    • Pumps

    Inspection includes checking for:

    • Fatigue cracks
    • Oil-induced corrosion
    • Loose foundation bolts
    • Structural deformation

    7. Sea Chests and Overboard Areas

    Where access is available, present:

    • Sea chest internals
    • Gratings
    • Shell connections
    • Corrosion protection arrangements
    • Overboard discharge structures

    These are examined for corrosion, coating condition and structural integrity.

    Second Engineer's Preparatory Actions Before ESP

    Before the survey, the Second Engineer should ensure that:

    • All designated double-bottom and machinery space tanks are thoroughly cleaned and mucked out.
    • Tanks are gas-freed, ventilated and certified safe for entry where required.
    • Adequate lighting and safe access (staging, ladders or rafts) are provided.
    • Bilges are clean and dry.
    • Structural members are free from oil, sludge and loose scale.
    • Thickness measurement locations are clearly accessible.
    • Previous ESP reports, thickness measurement records, repair records and structural drawings are available for the surveyor.
    • Safety equipment, communication arrangements and enclosed-space entry procedures are fully complied with during the survey.

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), particularly Annex II, addresses the discharge of noxious liquid substances (NLS) carried in bulk. This regulation is required for safeguarding the marine environment from the harmful effects of these substances. Annex II establishes a system of categorizing NLS based on their potential hazards and sets forth stringent discharge criteria to minimize pollution.

Categorization of Noxious Liquid Substances:

MARPOL Annex II classifies NLS into four categories based on the severity of the risk they pose to marine resources, human health, amenities, and other legitimate uses of the sea:

• Category X: This category comprises substances that present the most significant hazard. Discharge of these substances into the sea is considered to cause severe harm to marine life, human health, or both. Due to their high toxicity and potential for long-term damage, regulations concerning Category X substances are the strictest.

• Category Y: Substances classified under Category Y present a considerable hazard. While not as severe as Category X substances, their discharge into the sea is still deemed to cause harm to marine resources, human health, or may negatively impact amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea. These substances require careful handling and controlled discharge procedures.

• Category Z: Category Z substances present a minor hazard. Their discharge is considered to cause only minor harm to marine resources, human health, or may result in minor damage to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea. While less stringent than Categories X and Y, regulations still govern their discharge to minimize potential environmental impact.

• Other Substances (OS): This category includes substances that are considered to pose no harm to marine resources, human health, amenities, or other legitimate uses of the sea when discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or de-ballasting operations. While not entirely unregulated, these substances are subject to less stringent discharge requirements compared to the other categories.

As per MARPOL Annex II, Regulation 14, every ship certified to carry substances of Category X, Y, or Z, shall have onboard a manual approved by the Administration. This manual shall have a standard format in compliance with the requirements of the Annex. In the case of ships engaged in international voyages where the language used is not English, French, or Spanish, the text shall include a translation into one of these languages.

The main purpose of the manual is to identify for the ship's officers the physical arrangements and all the operational procedures concerning cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling, and cargo tank ballasting and deballasting, which must be followed in order to comply with the requirements of this Annex.

Information Available (Contents):

The Procedures and Arrangements Manual typically contains the following information:

• Name of the vessel
• IMO Number
• Port of Registry
• Approval stamp from the Administration
• Main Features of MARPOL Annex II, including a summary and relevant provisions from MARPOL 73/78, Annex II
• Ship-specific Descriptions:
  • Description of the ship’s equipment and arrangement
  • Cargo unloading procedures, including tank stripping
  • Procedures for cleaning cargo tanks
  • Methods for discharge of residues
  • Procedures for ballasting and deballasting
• Operational Information:
  • Cargo tank information (e.g., volume, location)
  • Flow diagrams for cargo and residue handling systems
  • Prewash procedures, where applicable
  • Ventilation procedures for tanks and pipelines
• Additional Information:
  • Any additional operational instructions or procedures required or accepted by the Administration
  • Explanation of how cargo tanks are cleared, including the methods and equipment used
  • Reference to OSAMP (Operational Shipboard Marine Pollution Plan), where relevant
  • Discharge criteria to be met before residues or wash water can be discharged into the sea

Here are the salient features of EEXI, EEOI, Enhanced SEEMP, and CII as per MARPOL Annex VI:

(i) EEXI (Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index)

• Purpose: A technical measure to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by improving the energy efficiency of existing ships through design and technical modifications.
• Applicability: Applies to existing ships of 400 GT and above engaged in international voyages, for specific ship types (e.g., bulk carriers, gas carriers, tankers, container ships, general cargo ships, refrigerated cargo carriers, combination carriers, ro-ro cargo ships, ro-ro passenger ships, cruise ships).
• Nature: It is a one-time certification requirement. Each ship must calculate its attained EEXI and demonstrate that it is below the required EEXI.
• Calculation: Based on the ship's design parameters, such as installed engine power, capacity (deadweight or gross tonnage), and a reference speed.
• Compliance: Ships must meet the required EEXI at their first annual, intermediate, or renewal survey after 1 January 2023.
• Outcome: Aims to ensure that existing ships meet a minimum energy efficiency standard, similar to the EEDI for new ships.

(ii) EEOI (Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator)

• Purpose: An operational measure used to monitor and track the energy efficiency of a ship in operation over a period, typically a voyage or a year.
• Applicability: Primarily a voluntary tool for ship operators to assess the energy efficiency of their fleet. However, it is a mandatory component for data collection under the IMO Data Collection System (DCS) and for calculating CII.
• Calculation: Based on actual operational data, including fuel consumption, cargo carried (or capacity), and distance traveled during a specific period.
• Metric: Expressed as grams of CO2 emitted per tonne-mile (gCO2/tonne-mile) or similar operational metric.
• Usage: Provides valuable data for internal management, benchmarking, and identifying areas for operational improvements. It is a key input for the SEEMP and for calculating the CII.
• Nature: It is a monitoring tool, not a direct regulatory compliance requirement in itself, but its data feeds into mandatory regulations.

(iii) Enhanced SEEMP (Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan)

• Purpose: A mandatory management plan that establishes a mechanism for ships to improve their energy efficiency over time and reduce GHG emissions.
• Applicability: Mandatory for all ships of 400 GT and above engaged in international voyages.
• Structure: The enhanced SEEMP (often referred to as SEEMP Part III) specifically addresses the Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) requirements.
• Key Components:
  • Planning: Outlines the methodology for calculating the ship's attained annual operational CII.
  • Implementation: Details the measures the ship will take to improve energy efficiency and achieve the required CII.
  • Monitoring: Specifies how the ship's operational performance will be monitored and recorded.
  • Self-evaluation & Improvement: Includes procedures for self-evaluation and corrective actions if the ship's CII rating is unsatisfactory.
• Approval: The SEEMP Part III must be developed, submitted to, and approved by the ship's Administration or a Recognized Organization (RO).
• Review: It is a living document that requires annual review and updates to reflect operational changes and stricter CII targets.

(iv) CII (Carbon Intensity Indicator)

• Purpose: An operational measure to rate the annual carbon intensity of ships and drive continuous improvement in their operational energy efficiency.
• Applicability: Mandatory for ships of 5,000 GT and above engaged in international voyages.
• Calculation: Calculated annually based on actual operational data (fuel consumption, distance traveled, and cargo carried/capacity) collected through the IMO DCS.
• Metric: Expressed as grams of CO2 per tonne-mile (gCO2/tonne-mile) or similar operational metric.
• Rating System: Each ship receives an annual operational carbon intensity rating from A to E (A being the best, E being the worst) based on its attained CII compared to a required CII.
• Compliance & Corrective Action:
  • Ships rated D for three consecutive years or E for one year must develop a corrective action plan as part of their SEEMP Part III, outlining how they will achieve a C rating or better.
  • The required CII becomes progressively stricter each year, aiming for a 2% annual reduction in carbon intensity from 2023 to 2026.
• Outcome: The rating is recorded in the ship's Statement of Compliance and aims to incentivize shipowners to optimize operations and implement energy-efficient technologies to improve their rating.

Both Port State Control (PSC) and Flag State Control (FSC) play vital roles in ensuring maritime safety and preventing pollution from ships. However, they operate under different jurisdictions and have distinct responsibilities.

Flag State Control (FSC):

• Jurisdiction: Exercised by the state where the ship is registered (the flag state).
• Responsibility: Ensures that ships flying their flag comply with international conventions and national regulations related to safety, security, and environmental protection.
• Actions: Conducts surveys and inspections, issues certificates, and enforces regulations.
• Example: A ship registered in Liberia must comply with Liberian maritime regulations, which are based on international standards. The Liberian flag state administration is responsible for verifying this compliance.

Port State Control (PSC):

• Jurisdiction: Exercised by the state in whose ports a foreign ship calls.
• Responsibility: Verifies that foreign ships visiting their ports comply with international conventions.
• Actions: Inspects ships, and if deficiencies are found, can detain the ship until they are rectified.
• Example: A ship registered in Liberia calling at a port in France can be inspected by French PSC officers to ensure it meets international safety and environmental standards.

Differences:

Clear Grounds under SOLAS, MARPOL, and STCW:

PSC inspections are carried out based on "clear grounds" that indicate a potential non-compliance with relevant conventions. These grounds can arise from various sources, including:

• SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea): Example: A ship arriving with a defective fire-fighting system or lifeboats that are not properly maintained. This poses a direct threat to the safety of the crew and the ship.
  • Clear Grounds: Evidence of missing or outdated safety equipment, fire safety deficiencies, or improper maintenance of life-saving appliances.
  • MARPOL (Marine Pollution): Example: A ship with an oily water separator that is not functioning correctly, leading to the discharge of oil into the sea. This violates pollution prevention regulations
    • Clear Grounds: Oil leaks, improper garbage management, or lack of a valid International Oil Pollution Prevention (IOPP) Certificate.
    • STCW (Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers): Example: A ship with crew members who do not hold the required certificates for their positions or are not familiar with essential safety procedures. This raises concerns about the crew's competence.
      • Clear Grounds: Insufficient crew certification, inadequate watchkeeping practices, or lack of familiarity with shipboard operations.

      Other Clear Grounds:

      • Casualty Investigations: Reports of recent accidents or incidents involving the ship.
      • Port State Information: Information received from other port states or maritime authorities.
      • Crew Complaints: Reports from crew members about unsafe working conditions or violations of regulations.
      • Targeting Factors: Ships identified as high-risk based on their age, type, or past performance.

Discuss the following with respect to the International Safety Management (ISM) Code.

Section 8 of the ISM Code requires the Company to establish procedures to identify, develop and plan responses to all foreseeable emergency situations on board (fire, collision, grounding, flooding, cargo shifting, fatigue, power failure, pollution, man-overboard, abandoning ship, piracy etc.). It must establish programmes of drills and exercises to prepare personnel to respond to these emergencies, and should test the plans and identify weaknesses. The SMS should:

• Identify possible emergency scenarios and allocate duties (through the muster list, emergency response procedures).
• Provide that crew are trained and drilled so they can operate emergency equipment (lifeboats, firefighting, CO2, life rafts, emergency generator, radio/DSC), as required by SOLAS and STCW.
• Carry out regular drills (monthly fire and abandon-ship drills, and in port within 24 hours as appropriate).
• Exercise the emergency procedures including alarm signals and making the ship ready, and document the drills and their results. Training and drills must be integrated with familiarisation and must be evaluated and improve continuously.

Section 9 of the ISM Code: the Company should establish and maintain procedures to report, investigate, and evaluate the risks of non-conformities, accidents and hazardous occurrences. Procedures should include:

• A clear process for reporting any near miss, non-conformity, accident, incident or hazardous occurrence, without fear of blame (a "just culture"/non-punitive reporting).
• Each such event is to be investigated to establish the root/contributory causes.
• Corrective and preventive action is taken and its effectiveness is verified.
• Findings are communicated and the SMS is improved; the database of these reports is maintained so trends (recurring issues) can be identified.
• Major non-conformities may require reporting to the flag Administration and the company on shore.
• The reports and records (near miss register, incident reports, corrective action records) are audited by the company's internal audits and by external/statutory auditors (SMC audit).

Section 7 of the ISM Code introduces a risk assessment-based approach: the Company should establish procedures to identify hazards, assess risks, and implement appropriate controls. This includes:

• Identifying the ship's critical equipment and systems - those whose sudden loss could endanger the ship, crew or environment (e.g. steering gear, main engine, generators, emergency generator, ballast/OWS, cargo control, fireflighting).
• For each such critical item, the SMS must specify the tests and checks to be carried out at stated intervals (e.g. steering gear testing prior to departure, emergency generator/OWS tests) and maintain a maintenance schedule.
• Determining the minimum spares and stores required to operate, and ensuring a minimum list of spares is carried to maintain the critical equipment; where spares are not carried, the company is to ensure they are supplied in adequate time.
• The risk assessment must consider operational and organisational factors and is documented; the prevention of pollution risk is also evaluated. Tests, planned maintenance and the spares inventory are recorded and verified at the ISM audits.

Discuss the following with respect to the AFS (Anti-fouling Systems) Convention.

The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention 2001, in force 2008) bans the application and presence of organotin compounds (specifically tributyltin, TBT) as biocides in anti-fouling paints, because of their harmful effects on the marine environment (especially toxicity to non-target organisms and contamination of mariculture). Salient features:

• Prohibition of organotin (TBT) anti-fouling paints; a ship may not bear such paints.
• Requires that any ship applying or bearing organotin be treated: the coating may be coated with a "seal coat"/barrier to prevent the release of organotin compounds or the paint removed; otherwise the ship is not permitted.
• It applies to ships of 400 GT and above engaged in international voyages, and also to fixed/floating platforms, floating storage units and floating production storage units.
• It requires surveys and certification: an International Anti-Fouling System Certificate (AFSC) for ships > 400 GT, and a Declaration on Anti-Fouling System for ships 24-400 m in length? (ships of 24 metres and above but < 400 GT need a Declaration) - to be in force: ships of 400 GT and above international need the AFSC; ships of 24 m or more but below 400 GT need a Declaration.
• Ships are also required to be checked for the anti-fouling system during occasional inspections (e.g. PSC), and the Record of the anti-fouling system is carried.
• Benefits: protection of the marine environment from toxic TBT; reduced contamination of the food chain and mariculture; protection of ship hulls from fouling with newly developed safe coatings while preventing a "false sense of security"; harmonised global standard so ships can trade without conflicting national bans.

Modern TBT-free (copper-based or biocide-free/low-release silicone/fouling-release) antifouling coatings:

• Avoid the environmental persistence, bio-accumulation and high toxicity of TBT; they cause less harm to non-target marine organisms and coastal/mariculture areas.
• Environmentally acceptable - meet the AFS standard and local regulation (e.g. in the EU/US and within special areas requiring low-leach coating).
• Provide long-lasting fouling protection (self-polishing/co-polymer and biocide release) comparable to or better than TBT coatings, reducing fuel consumption, resistance/weight and maintenance.
• Fouling-release (silicone) coatings offer low surface energy and reduced drag, improving fuel efficiency and reducing GHG emissions and hydrodynamic resistance over time.
• Safer for operators (lower toxicity during application) and can be cleaned/regenerated, extending docking intervals.

Vessels of 400 GT and above engaged in international voyages:

• Require an International Anti-Fouling System Certificate (AFSC) issued after survey by the flag Administration or Recognised Organisation.
• The survey confirms the anti-fouling system was not applied, or that no organotin is present, or that the vessel has been treated with an acceptable sealing coat/removal so as not to release organotin compounds.
• The survey is carried out at initial survey (before first issue), at such occasions as repair/renewal of the AF system (e.g. drydocking) with inspection, and an "occasional"/re-establishment survey after significant repairs. In practice, in-water or drydock surveys by the RO at docking intervals verify the coating.
• No statutory periodic renewal such as with SOLAS, but the certificate is issued and renewed at intervals when work affecting the AF system occurs; a signed Record (the AF System data) is attached.
• The certificate must be carried and is checked by port State control.

For ships of less than 400 GT (but typically 24 m or more depending on flag rules) or those not engaged in international voyages, the ship is required to carry a Declaration on Anti-Fouling System instead of a full certificate. This Declaration, signed by the owner or the owner's authorised representative (and in some Administrations verified by the RO), states that the anti-fouling system complies with the AFS Convention (no organotin used). There is generally no statutory inspection required, but the Declaration must be available on board and can be verified at inspections. For all ships (including small and those under 24 m), the fundamental requirement remains that no organotin anti-fouling may be applied, and the "seal coat"/removal option applies for existing vessels.

Information regarding the safe carriage of hazardous substances as cargo can be obtained from several key international codes and conventions. The primary source is SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) Chapter VII, which outlines the regulations for carrying dangerous goods. This chapter is further supplemented by specific codes tailored to the type of cargo and its form.

• Part A: Deals with dangerous goods in packaged form and refers to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code.
• Part A-1: Covers dangerous goods in solid form in bulk, and the relevant code is the Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes (BC Code).
• Part B: Pertains to the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk, governed by the International Bulk Chemical (IBC) Code.
• Part C: Relates to the construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk, and the applicable code is the International Gas Carrier (IGC) Code.
• Part D: Outlines special requirements for the carriage of wastes, specifically referring to the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Packaged Irradiated Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships (INF Code).

Phosphoric acid (H3​PO4​) is a hazardous substance that requires specific handling and safety precautions during transport.

(i) Storage and Transport

Phosphoric acid should be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area away from heat, fire, and incompatible materials like combustible substances, strong bases, and metals. Large storage tanks must be bundled and electrically grounded.

The substance is typically transported in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) jerrycans (50 kg), HDPE barrels (170 kg), or in dedicated tankers or ISO containers. To prevent corrosive reactions, it's crucial to avoid using glass or unprotected steel containers.

(ii) Hazardous Properties

While not combustible itself, phosphoric acid poses several hazards. It can release toxic substances like fluorine compounds and hydrogen fluoride if the wet-process acid is heated. Thermal decomposition can also release toxic phosphorus oxide and hydrogen gas, which is flammable and can lead to an explosion. Under extreme heat, it can decompose into phosphorus pentoxide, a toxic, strongly oxidizing, and corrosive substance.

Phosphoric acid is considered moderately toxic. Physical contact with the liquid may cause irritation, burns, or mild corrosive action on the skin. Prolonged or repeated contact can lead to dermatitis.

(iii) Firefighting and Suppression Techniques

Phosphoric acid does not burn, so no special firefighting techniques are required to extinguish the substance itself. In the event of a fire involving containers or structures exposed to the acid, a water spray should be used to cool them. Standard cargo ship firefighting and suppression measures are sufficient for dealing with fires in the vicinity of the cargo.

(iv) Medical Effects and Treatment

Contact with phosphoric acid can have various medical effects, requiring immediate first aid. Safety showers and eye-washing facilities should always be available where contact might occur.

• Skin Contact: Causes redness and burns, which may not be immediately apparent.
  • First Aid: Wash the affected area thoroughly with large amounts of water.
• Eye Contact: Splashes cause irritation and burns.
  • First Aid: Flush the eyes with a large amount of water.
• Inhalation: Mists can irritate the respiratory tract, although entry into the human system via inhalation is rare. If exposure exceeds recommended limits, use a gas mask or self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
• Ingestion: Can cause burns in the mouth and throat, as well as gastrointestinal irritation, pain, difficulty swallowing, thirst, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Severe cases can lead to collapse and death.
  • First Aid: The victim should drink a large amount of water to dilute the acid.

  In all serious cases, immediate qualified medical help is essential. Workers handling the substance should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including PVC gloves, boots, a resistant apron, protective clothing, and chemical safety goggles or a full face shield.

Core features of the FSS Code (International Code for Fire Safety Systems).

The International Code for Fire Safety Systems (FSS Code) is a mandatory instrument under SOLAS Chapter II-2, laying down the international technical requirements for fire safety systems and equipment to be fitted on board ships. Its purpose is to provide uniform, design and test standards so that fixed and portable firefighting, fire detection and alarm systems comply with the performance requirements of SOLAS; the Administration/flag State may accept equivalent alternatives under the equivalency provision of SOLAS.

Core features:

• Scope and application: It applies to passenger and cargo ships of all sizes to which SOLAS II-2 applies, and prescribes the exact design, construction, materials, installation, testing and maintenance of fire systems.
• It defines/standardises the fire safety systems: fixed fire-extinguishing systems (water, foam, powder, gas), fire mains and hydrants, fire detectors and fire alarm systems (smoke, heat and flame detectors), sprinkler systems, water-mist, gaseous extinction (CO2, inert), foam (low/high expansion), portable extinguishers, fire doors, and evacuation/escape routes.
• It provides specific performance and testing standards (fire test procedures) for components.
• It sets out the quantities of the extinguishing medium (e.g. CO2 quantity, foam concentrate), minimum pressures/flows (e.g. fire pump capacity, sprinkler discharge), piping requirements and their sizing, number/placement of detectors and extinguishers covering various spaces.
• It includes requirements for the fire safety systems plan and documentation, maintenance, testing and the training of personnel? (fire drills etc are dealt with under SOLAS).
• It is subdivided into chapters (1 general, water extinguishing, water mist, foam, gas, fire detection, etc.) and its provisions are binding through SOLAS reference.

Elaboration of one test prescribed by the Code (example: test of fixed CO2 systems is complex, and the high-expansion foam, but a clear example is the "fire extinguishing medium supply" or the fire detection system? A good, clean one is the "test of the fixed foam or CO2 quantity" but an easier to describe one is the "fire detection" - the performance test of smoke/heat detectors):

Example test - smoke/heat detector and alarm system: The FSS Code (Chapter 9) requires that each fire detector and the fire alarm/warning system be tested. The detectors have to be of a type approved after being subjected to defined fire tests and response-temperature tests. Installation test: detectors must be arranged so the designed average spacing is such that smoke/heat from a fire in the protected space actuates at least one of the detectors and initiates the alarm. A test smoke (artificial smoke/glass of smoke) is applied and the panel must indicate the correct zone; the alarm must operate (audible and visual). The detector must be tested at installation and periodically, and the code requires a manual test facility and that the response be verified. Also the "testing of the fixed CO2" example: the system is pressure-tested to 1.5x working pressure, and the sealed discharge valves/operating controls tested by hydrostatic test of cylinders/pipework; the fire fighting medium (CO2 weight) is confirmed. I will describe the detection test as it gives a clean answer.

With reference to a recent ILO notice on the health hazards from asbestos:

Asbestos was widely used in ship construction and machinery before its ban. It may still be found in:

• Insulation of hot surfaces: lagging around exhaust pipes, steam pipes, boiler casings, exhaust gas boilers, and cylinder jackets.
• Fire-resisting and acoustic insulation in bulkheads, decks and accommodation bulkheads (fire stops, fire doors linings).
• Old fire blankets and some firefighting/thermal protective material.
• Gaskets and packing in old valves, pumps, flanges and gland packing (behind pipe joints on tankers/steam ships).
• Brake linings of winches, windlasses and clutches; clutch linings.
• Ceiling tiles, floor tiles and mastic in accommodation.
• Electrical cable fire-resisting insulation (older vessels), and cable sleaving.
• Boiler and funnel lagging, and in the internal cladding of older incinerators.
• Packing/glands on older cargo and machinery, pipe insulation, and sometimes in the earlier fire-fighting suites (fire suits).

New ships since roughly the 1980s (and under SOLAS and the new-build IHM/Hong Kong Convention provisions) are prohibited from using asbestos; existing installations may remain in older tonnage, so the danger remains during repair, alteration and demolition.

• Inhalation of asbestos fibres (especially amphibole types such as crocidolite/blue asbestos and amosite/brown, and chrysotile/white) can cause:
• Asbestosis: progressive, irreversible fibrosis (scarring) of the lungs causing breathlessness and reduced lung function.
• Lung cancer: asbestos is a confirmed human carcinogen.
• Mesothelioma: a rare and aggressive cancer of the pleura (lining of the lungs) or peritoneum, almost exclusively caused by asbestos, with a long latent period (20-50 years) after exposure.
• Other asbestos-related disease: thickening/plaques of the pleura, laryngeal and ovarian cancers.
• There is no safe threshold; the risk increases with cumulative dose, and smoking multiplies the lung-cancer risk.
• Because fibres become airborne when material is disturbed (cutting, drilling, grinding, breaking lagging), the danger is acute during repair and demolition operations.
• Symptoms may not appear for many years after exposure.

• Identify the material before work: consult the ship's asbestos register / IHM (Part I) and survey results to locate asbestos-containing material (ACM); treat any unidentifiable old insulation as presumed ACM.
• Do not disturb ACM unless absolutely necessary; if an asbestos-containing pipe insulation is damaged, wet it down and limit access to the area; isolate the work area and warn all personnel.
• Use a competent, trained team: perform emergency repairs by adopting minimum-disturbance techniques; only trained persons with the required respiratory protective equipment (RPE, e.g. FFP3 masks or air-supplied respirators) and protective clothing should handle ACM.
• Wet methods: damp the material to suppress dust; do not use power tools that generate dust; use manual tools where feasible; clean up with damp cloths/wipes and a HEPA vacuum, not dry sweeping.
• Ventilation and segregation: seal off the repair area with plastic sheeting, keep hatches/doors closed, maintain negative pressure/adequate ventilation, and post warning signs.
• Decontamination: personnel remove contaminated clothing before leaving the area; use designated decontamination; dispose of ACM waste in sealed, labelled bags/containers as hazardous waste for proper shore disposal.
• Monitoring and records: if fibres could be released, arrange air monitoring; record the work in the ship's asbestos/IHM records and inform the shipowner/flag so a proper asbestos remediation company can complete permanent removal later.
• Medical and reporting: report any exposure to the shipowner and to medical personnel; take appropriate medical surveillance (such as respiratory checks) as advised under national OSH law.

1. Key Clauses Required for Obtaining an Interim DOC

An Interim Document of Compliance (DOC) is issued under Clause 14.1 of the International Safety Management (ISM) Code. It is granted to facilitate the initial implementation of the ISM Code when:

• a shipping company is newly established, or
• a company holding a DOC adds a new ship type to its existing DOC.

For obtaining an Interim DOC, the company is not required to prove a long history of full onboard implementation of the Safety Management System (SMS). However, it must demonstrate that:

• its SMS meets the core objectives of the ISM Code, and
• it has a concrete plan to fully implement the system within 12 months.

The important clauses that must be complied with are as follows:

Clause 1 – General (Objectives and Functional Requirements)

Clause 1.2 – Objectives

The company must clearly establish safety management objectives to ensure:

• safety at sea,
• prevention of human injury or loss of life, and
• avoidance of damage to the marine environment.

Clause 1.4 – Functional Requirements

The company must show that its drafted SMS includes the essential elements of the ISM Code, such as:

• a safety and environmental protection policy,
• instructions and procedures for safe operation of ships,
• defined lines of communication between ship and shore personnel,
• procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities, and
• procedures for emergency preparedness and response.

Clause 2 – Safety and Environmental Protection Policy

The company must have a formally documented safety and environmental protection policy, approved by senior management.

This policy should clearly state how the company will achieve its safety and environmental goals and must show that safety and pollution prevention take priority over commercial pressure.

Clause 3 – Company Responsibilities and Authority

The company must clearly define and document the responsibilities and authority of all persons involved in safety management.

This includes:

• identifying who is responsible for what,
• defining the responsibility, authority and interrelationship of all personnel who manage, perform and verify work related to safety and pollution prevention.

If the company operating the ship is not the owner, the shipowner must report the full details of the operator to the Flag Administration.

Clause 4 – Designated Person Ashore (DPA)

To maintain a proper link between ship and shore, the company must appoint a Designated Person Ashore (DPA).

For an Interim DOC, the company must demonstrate that the DPA is:

• properly appointed,
• qualified and competent,
• given direct access to the highest level of management, and
• provided with adequate authority and resources to monitor the safety and pollution-prevention aspects of each ship.

Clause 5 – Master’s Responsibility and Authority

The SMS documentation must clearly define the Master’s role, responsibility and authority.

Most importantly, it must state that the Master has:

• overriding authority to make decisions concerning safety and pollution prevention, and
• the authority to request the company’s assistance whenever necessary.

2. Responsibility of the Second Engineer for Satisfactory Implementation of SMS on Board

The Second Engineer is a management-level officer and the executive head of the engine department under the Chief Engineer. He plays a very important role in the effective implementation of the Safety Management System (SMS) on board, especially in the engine department.

His responsibilities include the following:

A. Familiarization, Manning and Training (Clause 6)

The Second Engineer must ensure that all engine room personnel, including junior engineers, motormen, oilers, wipers and ratings, are properly familiarized with:

• their duties under the SMS,
• the engine room layout,
• safe working procedures, and
• emergency procedures.

He must ensure that:

• newly joined personnel are properly familiarized before being assigned important duties,
• junior engineers and ratings understand SMS instructions, safety precautions and machinery operating procedures, and
• all required training sessions and drills are carried out.

B. Safe Engine Room Operations and Safety Leadership (Clause 7)

The Second Engineer is responsible for supervising the day-to-day operation of the engine room and ensuring that all work is carried out in accordance with the SMS procedures, checklists and permit-to-work system.

This includes ensuring compliance during jobs such as:

• fuel oil transfer,
• hot work,
• enclosed space entry, and
• working aloft.

He must also:

• conduct pre-work safety briefings/toolbox meetings,
• ensure all engine room personnel understand the job hazards, permit requirements and precautions, and
• conduct and document risk assessments for routine and non-routine tasks before work begins.

C. Emergency Preparedness (Clause 8)

The Second Engineer plays an active role in preparing the engine department for emergencies.

His duties include:

• organizing and participating in engine room emergency drills, such as:
  • engine room flooding,
  • fire in the scavenge space or purifier room,
  • steering gear failure,
  • blackout, etc.

  He must ensure that engine room staff are familiar with:

  • their duties during emergencies,
  • emergency escape routes,
  • operation of quick-closing valves,
  • remote trips, and
  • emergency procedures laid down in the SMS.

  He must also ensure proper readiness and testing of emergency systems such as:

  • emergency generator,
  • emergency fire pump, and
  • other emergency equipment related to the engine department.

  D. Reporting of Non-Conformities, Accidents and Hazardous Occurrences (Clause 9)

  The Second Engineer must identify and report:

  • non-conformities,
  • accidents,
  • near misses, and
  • hazardous occurrences.

  These should be reported to the Chief Engineer for entry into the ship’s SMS reporting system and communication to the company/DPA where required.

  He should also:

  • take immediate corrective action to control unsafe conditions, and
  • assist in investigating the root cause of incidents so that recurrence can be prevented.

  E. Maintenance of Ship and Equipment / Planned Maintenance System (Clause 10)

  The Second Engineer is one of the key officers responsible for implementation of the Planned Maintenance System (PMS) in the engine department.

  He must manage and monitor maintenance of:

  • main engine,
  • auxiliary engines/generators,
  • boilers,
  • steering gear, and
  • other critical machinery and equipment.

  He must ensure that:

  • maintenance is carried out at the scheduled intervals,
  • all maintenance is done according to SMS procedures,
  • defects affecting safety are identified, prioritized and rectified without delay, and
  • technical non-conformities are avoided.

  He is also responsible for inspection and testing of important emergency and safety-related equipment in engine spaces, such as:

  • fire-fighting appliances (FFA),
  • life-saving appliances (LSA) related to the engine department,
  • emergency generator, and
  • emergency fire pump.

  F. Environmental Protection and MARPOL Compliance

  The Second Engineer has an important role in ensuring pollution prevention and environmental compliance in the engine room. In many ships, he may also function as the Environmental Officer.

  He must ensure compliance with:

  • MARPOL regulations, and
  • Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) requirements.

  His duties include supervising:

  • operation of the Oily Water Separator (OWS),
  • bilge and sludge transfer operations, and
  • pollution-prevention practices in machinery spaces.

  He must also ensure that relevant records are accurately maintained, especially:

  • Oil Record Book (ORB / ORB Part I),
  • engine room logbooks, and
  • work and rest hour records.

  These records provide objective evidence during internal and external audits.

Sketch description (layout):

At the top of the machinery space a foam generator is mounted on each of the two levels of the space, connected to a header pipe from a foam-making compound (foam concentrate) tank. Elements of the diagram: expansion/foam-generating devices (fans with a gauze/mesh and spray nozzles) fed by a pump; a dedicated foam concentrate storage tank (a tank of continuous volume or other approved supply); separate supply piping for foam solution or for a mixture of foam concentrate and seawater; control valves and non-return valves; a pressure gauge; and remote control valves at the control room. Typical pipework: water line from the fire main (or a dedicated seawater pump) goes to a proportioner/blender where foam concentrate is metered into the water stream to make the foam solution; the solution then flows to the foam generator which blows air through (a fan) so the solution is beaten into high-expansion foam (expansion ratio typically 300 to 1000:1 rather than the low-expansion which is ~10:1). The foam exits into the machinery space through a discharge opening/screen. Controls: a remote starting pushbutton and a local manual start, with the discharge flood valve operated from the control station. An alarm and the indication/light arrange at the control room.

On a fire being detected in the machinery space (e.g. by smoke/heat detectors or a manual alarm), the fire door is secured and ventilation closed. From the control room, the operator (or an automatic arrangement) starts the foam system: the foam solution pump starts, drawing water (seawater) from the sea through a sea suction; the pump discharges through a proportioner which injects foam concentrate in the correct ratio. The mixture (foam solution) passes to the foam generators where the fan rotates, drawing air in and creating a foam of very high expansion ratio (300:1 to 1000:1) by beating the solution with the air through a metal gauze or net. The foam is discharged into the space above the machinery (e.g. through openings near the top of the space) and builds up, flowing downward, filling the space. Because the foam has a high expansion ratio it rapidly fills the void (including under gratings and behind equipment) displacing air and cutting off the oxygen supply to the fire, smothering it, and also providing some cooling. The system carries on until the space is fully flooded with foam. Personnel must evacuate; the foam will make escape difficult and may restrict visibility, so the system is only operated when all personnel have left. The operating instructions are displayed, and the system is serviced/test-discharge regularly.

The foam concentrate (a liquid, generally protein, fluoroprotein, AFFF or synthetic) is mixed with seawater in a proportioner (inductor or ratio controller) in the correct ratio (e.g. 1-10% or 3/6 %) to form a foam solution. The foam solution is then forced at pressure through the generator where air is entrained by a fan and the solution is aerated/beaten as it passes through a fine mesh/gauze. This mechanical aeration - air bubbles mechanically entrapped in the low-surface-tension solution - produces a high-expansion, air-rich foam. The expansion ratio and the foam's stability depend on the type and concentration of the foaming agent, the quality of the water, and the design of the generator (the expansion device). Unlike chemical foam (foam made by the reaction of an acid and an alkali, generating CO2 bubbles), mechanical foam relies on the physical mixing of air and solution.

• Daily/weekly: check the foam concentrate stock level and specific gravity; ensure the tank is full and the sample is within specification (concentrate can deteriorate).
• Check the operation of the generator fan, the starter, the remote controls and the alarm.
• Inspect valves, filters and non-return valves; ensure no blockage of the discharge opening and air intake screen.
• Monthly/periodic: run the pump on water at test discharge to confirm correct pressure and flow (operational test); check the proportioner is correctly set and the ratio.
• 6-monthly/annually: sample the foam concentrate and have it tested by the manufacturer (it may degrade); replace the concentrate if out of specification; carry out a functional discharge/expansion test of a generator on the test line; drain check screens; and carry out cylinder/proportioner servicing.
• After any use or contamination, flush the system with fresh water to prevent blockage.
• All tests are recorded in the log and the system is kept in line with the manufacturer's and SOLAS/FSS requirements.

The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships

Historical Background

• From Scrapping to Recycling: Traditionally, ship dismantling was referred to as "scrapping." However, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) changed this terminology to "recycling," promoting the idea that every part of a ship should be recycled as practically as possible.
• MEPC’s Involvement: The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) developed guidelines, finalized during its 49th session in July 2003.
• These were adopted by the 23rd IMO Assembly (Nov–Dec 2003) as:
  1. Resolution A.962(23) – Guidelines on Ship Recycling
  2. Amended by Resolution A.980(24)

"Nothing Goes to Waste"

• The guidelines emphasized that ship recycling results in minimal waste:
  • Steel is reprocessed into construction materials.
  • Generators are reused on land.
  • Batteries are repurposed in local markets.
  • Hydrocarbons are reclaimed as fuel.
  • Light fittings and other equipment also find second lives ashore.

  Ship Recycling as a “Green” Industry

  • When done properly, ship recycling is considered a green and sustainable industry.
  • However, the IMO recognized that working conditions and environmental practices in recycling yards often need improvement.
  • While primary responsibility lies with the recycling states, all stakeholders are encouraged to help minimize potential risks and hazards.

  Introduction of the “Green Passport”

  • The guidelines introduced the “Green Passport”, a document containing a comprehensive inventory of hazardous materials used in the ship’s construction.
  • Key features:
    • Prepared at the shipbuilding stage and handed to the first owner.
    • Updated throughout the ship's life by successive owners.
    • Delivered to the recycling yard along with the vessel at end-of-life.

    Entry Into Force

    • The Convention is open for accession by any State.
    • It will enter into force 24 months after 15 States (representing at least 40% of global merchant shipping by gross tonnage) have signed or ratified it.

    Objectives of the Convention

    • The main aim is to ensure that ships, when recycled at the end of their service lives, do not pose unnecessary risks to human health, safety, or the environment.

    Key Issues Addressed

    • The Convention responds to concerns about:
      • Hazardous substances on board ships (e.g., asbestos, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, ozone-depleting substances).
      • Poor working conditions and environmental standards at many ship recycling facilities around the world.

      Scope of Regulations

      The Convention covers the entire life cycle of ships with respect to recycling:

      1. Design, Construction, Operation, and Preparation of Ships
         • To support safe and environmentally sound recycling without compromising ship safety and efficiency.
      2. Operation of Ship Recycling Facilities
         • Ensures facilities function safely and in an environmentally sound manner.
      3. Enforcement Mechanism
         • Involves certification, inspection, and reporting procedures.

      Recycling Process Requirements

      Inventory of Hazardous Materials

      • Ships must maintain an Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM), unique to each vessel.
      • An appendix to the Convention lists materials that are restricted or prohibited in shipyards and onboard ships.

      Pre-Recycling Surveys

      • Ships will undergo:
        • An initial survey to verify the IHM.
        • Periodic surveys during operational life.
        • A final survey prior to recycling.

        Ship Recycling Plan

        • Recycling facilities must prepare a Ship Recycling Plan, detailing:
          • How the ship will be dismantled.
          • Consideration of the ship’s specifications and hazardous materials inventory.
        • State parties are required to ensure that recycling facilities under their jurisdiction comply with all Convention regulations.

Fire Detector Control Panel System

(i) Audible Fire Alarm Circuits:

The control unit incorporates an alarm panel, typically located outside of machinery spaces, which visually indicates the specific fire zone. This panel integrates zone circuits, audible alarms, and an auxiliary power supply.

The system continuously monitors the integrity of its lines. Any developing fault, such as damaged insulation or a break in the cable, triggers a system failure alarm.

• Fire Alarm: Usually an intermittent audible signal.
• Fault & Manual Test Alarms: Typically, continuous audible signals.

(ii) Identification of Zone of Fire:

Under normal conditions, the contacts within a detector head are open. When fire is detected, these contacts close, shorting the circuit and activating the audible fire alarm. The precise zone of the fire is then identified visually via the zone indicator on the control panel.

(iii) Automatic Changeover from Normal Power Supply:

In the event of a failure in the main power supply, the system automatically switches to an auxiliary power source. This auxiliary power can come from either an emergency generator or fully charged standby batteries. These batteries are designed to provide power for up to 18 hours on cargo ships and up to 36 hours on passenger ships.

Most fire detection systems operate on 24V DC. However, for systems that operate on a 220V AC mains supply, an inverter is used to convert the 24V DC battery power to 220V AC.

SAFE MANNING MANUAL

For a 26,000 GRT Bulk Carrier

1. Purpose

The purpose of this manual is to ensure that the vessel is safely manned in accordance with:

• International Maritime Organization (IMO) Resolution A.1047(27)
• SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 14
• STCW Convention
• Maritime Labour Convention (MLC)
• ISM Code

This manual also takes into account:

• Frequent port calls
• Rest-hour management
• High-risk/piracy areas
• Cargo and emergency operations

2. Ship Particulars

3. Safe Manning Objectives

Safe manning arrangements shall ensure:

1. Safe navigation and watchkeeping
2. Safe cargo handling operations
3. Safe engine-room operation
4. Pollution prevention
5. Compliance with rest-hour regulations
6. Emergency preparedness
7. Security duties during high-risk area transit

4. Minimum Manning Scale

Deck Department

• Master – 1
• Chief Officer – 1
• Second Officer – 1
• Third Officer – 1
• Bosun – 1
• Able Seaman – 3
• Ordinary Seaman – 1
• Deck Cadet – 1

Engine Department

• Chief Engineer – 1
• Second Engineer – 1
• Third Engineer – 1
• Fourth Engineer – 1
• Electro-Technical Officer (ETO) – 1
• Oilers/Motormen – 3
• Engine Cadet – 1

Catering Department

• Chief Cook – 1
• Steward – 1

Total Crew: 20

Additional manpower is maintained due to:

• Cargo loading and discharging operations
• Frequent port calls
• Fatigue prevention
• High-risk area transit

5. Watchkeeping Arrangement

Bridge Watches

The same watch schedule is repeated for the next 12 hours.

• An Able Seaman (AB) lookout shall be posted at all times.

Engine Watches

• UMS operation shall be maintained at sea.
• Duty engineer shall remain on call.
• Additional engine staff shall be available during manoeuvring and cargo operations.

6. Rest Hour Management

As per STCW requirements:

• Minimum 10 hours rest in any 24-hour period
• Minimum 77 hours rest in any 7-day period
• Rest hours may be divided into a maximum of two periods
• One period of rest must be at least 6 continuous hours

Fatigue Control Measures

• Rest hours shall be recorded daily.
• Overtime shall be monitored by the Master.
• Compensatory rest shall be provided after heavy cargo operations.
• Drills shall be planned to avoid excessive fatigue.

7. Frequent Port Call Management

Frequent loading and discharging operations increase crew workload due to:

• Mooring operations
• Cargo watchkeeping
• Ballast operations
• Hatch cover operations
• Documentation work

Control Measures

• Extra deck ratings shall be assigned during mooring operations.
• Cargo watch rotation shall be carried out every 6 hours.
• Additional engine attendance shall be maintained during port stay.
• Non-essential maintenance work shall be postponed during busy operational schedules.

8. High-Risk Area Procedures

During transit through piracy-prone or high-risk areas:

• Additional bridge lookout shall be posted.
• Engine room shall be kept on standby condition.
• Security patrols shall be increased.
• Access control measures shall be strictly maintained.
• Emergency anti-piracy procedures shall be kept ready for immediate use.

9. Emergency Preparedness

The vessel shall carry sufficient crew for effective response to:

• Firefighting
• Lifeboat launching
• Flooding and damage control
• Medical emergencies
• Pollution response

Regular emergency drills shall be conducted without causing excessive disturbance to crew rest hours.

10. Master’s Responsibility

The Master shall:

• Ensure compliance with safe manning requirements
• Monitor crew fatigue levels
• Maintain proper watchkeeping standards
• Report unsafe manning conditions to the company

11. Company Responsibility

The company shall:

• Provide qualified and certified crew
• Ensure proper relief planning
• Prevent excessive crew workload
• Support fatigue management systems

12. Conclusion

Safe manning on a 26,000 GRT bulk carrier is essential for:

• Safe navigation
• Efficient cargo handling
• Emergency response
• Pollution prevention
• Crew welfare

As a Second Engineer, the process of opening and cleaning a double bottom tank in the Engine Room presents several specific risks. These include:

• Confined Space Entry Hazards: Lack of oxygen, presence of toxic or flammable gases (e.g., hydrocarbon vapours, hydrogen sulphide from sludge), and poor ventilation leading to asphyxiation or explosion.
• Slips, Trips, and Falls: Slippery surfaces due to oil, water, or sludge, uneven tank bottom, and limited visibility.
• Chemical Exposure: Contact with cleaning agents, residual fuel, or sludge, leading to skin irritation, burns, or respiratory issues.
• Mechanical Hazards: Injury from moving parts if equipment inside the tank is not properly isolated, or from tools used during cleaning.
• Heat Stress: High temperatures within the engine room and confined tank space, especially in tropical climates.
• Poor Visibility: Inadequate lighting inside the tank, increasing the risk of accidents.
• Fire and Explosion: Presence of flammable vapours combined with ignition sources (e.g., sparks from tools, static electricity).
• Falling Objects: Tools or equipment dropped from the tank opening.
• Ergonomic Risks: Awkward postures and repetitive movements during cleaning, leading to musculoskeletal injuries.

Risk on board a ship refers to the combination of the likelihood of an event occurring and the potential consequences of that event. It encompasses the probability of harm to people, property, or the environment due to hazards present in the marine environment. As almost every task performed on a ship involves some level of risk, it is essential to analyze tasks for potential dangers and adopt measures to mitigate risks effectively.

Risk Assessment Process

Risk assessment involves the systematic evaluation of tasks to identify hazards, determine the likelihood of their occurrence, and evaluate their consequences. It aims to ensure that adequate precautions are in place to prevent accidents. The process involves the following key steps:

1. Identifying Hazards

Hazards are anything with the potential to cause harm. In the marine environment, these include:

• Weather conditions
• Inadequate lighting or ventilation
• Damaged tools or equipment
• Handling heavy weights
• Electrical hazards and moving machinery
• Slippery surfaces and enclosed openings
• Fumes from chemicals, working at heights, and high-pressure systems like steam or gas
• Noise and sharp objects

2. Determining Likelihood

The likelihood of an event is assessed as:

• Unlikely
• Possible
• Likely
• Very frequent

3. Evaluating Consequences

Consequences refer to the outcomes of an event, which can be:

• Human Consequences: Injuries or fatalities
• Environmental Consequences: Pollution or ecological damage
• Property Consequences: Damage to machinery, cargo, or facilities

Methods such as incident history or theoretical modeling can be used to evaluate consequences. A risk profile matrix, combining likelihood and consequences, helps to categorize the severity of the risk.

As a Second Engineer, effective methods for identifying and addressing risks include:

1. Observation and Inspection: Regularly inspect equipment, tools, and working conditions to identify visible hazards.
2. Incident History Review: Examine past accidents to understand root causes and consequences.
3. Crew Feedback: Encourage open communication with the crew to report potential hazards and unsafe practices.
4. Job Safety Analysis (JSA): Break down each task into steps, identify associated hazards, and implement controls.
5. Risk Mitigation Measures: Employ controls such as:
   • Risk Avoidance: Cease tasks with unmanageable risks.
   • Risk Reduction: Implement engineering controls, safety devices, and safe work practices.
   • Risk Transfer: Share risk responsibility through insurance or contracts.

Once risks are identified, they are either accepted or treated:

• Risk Acceptance: Acceptable low-level risks allow work to proceed without additional controls.
• Risk Treatment: Moderate or high risks require reduction measures before work begins. This involves:
  • Modifying work procedures
  • Providing personal protective equipment (PPE)
  • Implementing administrative controls

  Other methods which can be used to determine such risks include:

  1. Observation and Inspection: Regularly inspect the tank, associated piping, and cleaning equipment to identify visible hazards before and during the operation.
  2. Incident History Review: Examine past accidents or near-misses related to confined space entry or tank cleaning on board or in the industry to understand root causes and consequences.
  3. Crew Feedback: Encourage open communication with the crew involved in the task to report potential hazards, unsafe practices, or concerns based on their experience.
  4. Job Safety Analysis (JSA) / Task Risk Assessment (TRA): Break down each step of the tank opening and cleaning process, identify associated hazards for each step, and implement specific controls.
  5. Checklists and Surveys: Utilize pre-prepared checklists for confined space entry and tank cleaning to ensure all necessary precautions are considered and implemented.
  6. Safety Audits and Inspections: Conduct formal audits to verify compliance with safety procedures and identify systemic weaknesses.

MARPOL Annex VI (Regulation 12) controls ozone-depleting substances (ODS) - principally CFCs, HCFCs and Halons used in refrigeration and firefighting systems. The requirements:

• Deliberate emissions of ODS during maintenance, servicing, repair or disposal are prohibited.
• New installations (and replacement or major conversion) of refrigeration and air-conditioning systems on ships are prohibited from containing ODS; the use of Halons in new fixed fire protection systems was phased out (Halons were banned in new installations from 1 October 2001 for ships? - under the Montreal Protocol).
• Ships constructed after a specified date (e.g. those built to Annex VI) cannot carry ODS in new systems.
• Any discharge, leak or emission of ODS is to be documented in the ODS Record Book / refrigerant log, which must be maintained showing the type, quantity and any additions/withdrawals.
• The system must be monitored so that leaks are detected and repaired; ship's crew should be trained not to vent ODS.
• Nationally, ships may not be supplied with virgin ODS after the applicable phase-out (they may use recycled/recovered refrigerant to maintain existing plants) under the flag State's implementation.
• The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol and the EU F-gas regulations also limit high-GWP HFC refrigerants, so even non-ODS but high-GWP gases (R-134a, R-404A) are being phased down and recorded. Control measures therefore extend to minimising emissions of damaging gases generally, with the ODS Record Book and proper gas-recovery servicing.

Regulation 15 of MARPOL Annex VI requires vapour emission control for tankers:

• All crude oil tankers and product carriers carrying cargoes identified as emitting VOC are required to have a vapour emission control system (vapour collection system) fitted, and to be provided with shore/vessel vapour return connections.
• Tankers of 10,000 GT and above (all crude oil tankers) carrying oil with an actual vapour pressure of 11 kPa or more at 37.8 C (300 C) must be fitted with a vapour emission (vapour recovery/collection) system.
• Loading and discharge at ports/terminals in Annex VI parties must comply with the requirement to retain vapours, using vapour return lines to the terminal's vapour recovery unit, unless the cargo has low vapour pressure or other exemptions apply (e.g. crude oil with RVP below the limit, or small ships).
• An approved vapour emission control system must be used; the ship's SOPEP/Garbage/other relevant operations and record (VOC management) must be documented.
• Even without a shore facility, the ship is to use the vapour collection and the venting of VOC to atmosphere is to be minimised. In practice this means: keep tank pressures, use the inert-gas/vapour control, and route vapours to recovery.

Regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI sets NOx emission limits for marine diesel engines:

• The limits are expressed in g/kWh and depend on the engine rated speed (n, rpm) - a curve (Tier I, Tier II, Tier III).
• Tier I: for engines installed on ships constructed after 1 Jan 2000; Tier II: after 1 Jan 2011; Tier III: after the appointed dates in NOx Emission Control Areas (NECA): North American and US Caribbean NECA from 1 Jan 2016, Baltic and North Sea NECA from 1 Jan 2021.
• Tier limits: at n<130 rpm (low speed): Tier I 17.0, Tier II 14.4, Tier III 3.4 g/kWh; at 130 to <2000 rpm: interpolate logarithmically; at >=2000 rpm (high speed): Tier I 9.8, Tier II 7.7, Tier III 2.0 g/kWh.
• Compliance: engines are certified by an engine survey against the NOx Technical Code, which requires the engine be tested and a NOx Technical File issued; engines must carry an EIAPP (Engine International Air Pollution Prevention) certificate.
• A ship operated in or entering a NECA must be able to comply with the applicable Tier III limit - which can be achieved by Tier III engine designs, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or other NOx control methods.
• Control methods to reduce NOx: SCR (selective catalytic reduction with urea/ammonia), EGR (exhaust gas recirculation), water-in-fuel/fuel-water emulsification, water injection, optimised injection timing/fuel injection rates, variable valve timing, SCR=ammonia; exhaust gas cleaning. NOx Technical File and the record of the engine adjustments are required to verify compliance.

• This regulation applies to all bulk carriers, regardless of their date of construction.
• All such vessels must be fitted with a water level detection and alarm system in specific spaces.

The detectors are designed to provide audible and visual alarms. These detectors are to be fitted in the cargo holds, ballast spaces, and dry spaces of bulk carriers. Specifically, the water level detector in cargo holds shall be fitted in the aft end. For cargo holds that are used for water ballast, an alarm overriding device may be installed. The visual alarm on the navigating bridge shall clearly differentiate between the two distinct water levels detected in each cargo hold.

Each cargo hold shall be provided with audible and visual alarms as follows:

• One alarm when water reaches 0.5 m above the inner bottom.
• Another alarm when water reaches a height of not less than 15% of the cargo hold depth, but not more than 2 m.

In any ballast tank forward of the collision bulkhead, an audible and visual alarm must be activated when the liquid reaches no more than 10% of the tank capacity.

• In any dry or void space (excluding chain cable lockers), located forward of the foremost cargo hold, an audible and visual alarm must be activated when water reaches 0.1 m above the deck.

• For cargo holds used for water ballast, an alarm overriding device may be installed to be activated when the tank is in use.
• The visual alarm shall clearly discriminate between the two different water levels detected in the cargo hold.
• An alarm need not be provided in enclosed spaces where the volume does not exceed 0.1% of the ship's maximum displacement volume.
• All specified audible and visual alarms shall be located on the navigating bridge.